Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition (PDF)

Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition This clear and informative textbook is designed to help the student achieve optimal success as a language learner and user. Aimed at beginning to intermediate undergraduates and above, it teaches students to understand their own prefer- ences in learning, to develop individual learning plans and approaches, and to select appropriate learning strategies. The authors – all leading experts in language teaching – base their advice on theories of learning, cognition, and memory, con- cepts which they explain in simple and accessible terms. The book is divided into three parts, on learning, language, and communication, and provides students with communicative strategies for use in real-life interaction with native speakers. Each chapter contains an overview and review section, with learning activities that students can carry out by themselves, in groups, or in the classroom. Equally suitable for use both by individuals and as a class text, this book will become an invaluable resource for all language learners. A learning styles test to accompany this book can be found at http://www.cambridge.org/052154663X www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●● BETTY LOU LEAVER, MADELINE EHRMAN, AND BORIS SHEKHTMAN www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, S˜ao Paulo cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521837510 C⃝ Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman 2005 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2005 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data Leaver, Betty Lou. Achieving success in second language acquisition / Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 521 83751 0 – ISBN 0 521 54663 X (paperback) 1. Second language acquisition. I. Ehrman, Madeline Elizabeth. II. Shekhtman, Boris. III. Title. P118.2.L43 2004 418 – dc22 2004056142 ISBN-13 978-0-521-83751-4 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-83751-0 hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-54663-8 paperback ISBN-10 0-521-54663-X paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Contents Notes on authors vi Acknowledgments viii Note to the reader x Part I Learning 1 Planning foreign-language study 3 2 Understanding the role of cognition in the learning process 38 3 Learning styles and learning strategies 65 4 Understanding feelings and personality in language learning 92 5 Interpersonal dynamics in the learning process 131 Part II Language 6 Verbal language 147 7 Sociolinguistics: the right expression 172 8 Unspoken communication 183 Part III Independence 9 Self-regulation and learner autonomy 201 10 Controlling spoken and written communication 215 Epilogue: from here to there: attaining near-native proficiency 234 Appendix A. Answers to “practicing what you have learned” 244 Appendix B. Learning strategies taxonomies 246 References 248 Index 258 v www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Notes on authors betty lou leaver (PhD, Pushkin Institute, Moscow) is Dean of the Amman Campuses of New York Institute of Technology at Jordan University for Sci- ence and Technology in America, Jordan and NYIT Associate Dean of Global and International Education. She has directed language programs at the Foreign Service Institute, the Defense Language Institute, the American Global Stud- ies Institute, and NASA, and has provided consultation on language learning to ministries of education in nearly twenty countries. She is the author and/or edi- tor of more than 150 publications, including Content-Based Instruction: Models and Methods (Georgetown University Press, 1997); Teaching the Whole Class (Corwin Press, 1997; Kendall Hunt, 1998); Passport to the World: Learning to Communicate in a Foreign Language (1999); Twelve Years of Dialogue on Teaching Russian (1999); Developing Professional-Level Language Proficiency (Cambridge University Press, 2002); Individualized Study Plans for Very Advanced Students of Foreign Languages (MSI Press, 2003); Achieving Native- like Second Language Proficiency: A Catalogue of Critical Factors: Volume 1: Speaking; and Task-Based Instruction: Programs and Practices (Georgetown University Press, 2004). madeline ehrman (PhD, The Union Institute) is Director of Research, Evaluation, and Development at the Foreign Service Institute, where she founded and heads the Learning Consultation Service in the School of Language Stud- ies. She is concurrently a Senior Researcher at the Center for the Advanced Study of Language at the University of Maryland, where her focus is the role of language learning aptitude and individual differences in reaching very high lev- els of proficiency. Also a trained psychotherapist, Dr. Ehrman has written and presented extensively on the psychology and psychodynamics of language learn- ing and teaching; she has contributed extensively to the literature on individual differences, especially learning styles. Her large number of publications, using her background in both psychology and linguistics, includes Understanding Sec- ond Language Learner Difficulties (Sage, 1996); and Interpersonal Dynamics in Second Language Education: The Visible and Invisible Classroom (Sage, 1998). Dr. Ehrman has provided consultation to a number of programs nationally and internationally. vi www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Notes on authors vii boris shekhtman (MA, Grozny Pedagogical Institute, Russia) is President, Specialized Language Training Center in Rockville, Maryland and Operational Director of the Coalition of Distinguished Language Centers. He has taught RussianatHowardUniversityandattheForeignServiceInstitute,whereheearned the Una Cox Chapman Award for teaching excellence. He has provided consulta- tion to government and private language programs in the USA and England. His publications include Mark Smith’s Diary: Cross-Cultural Lessons in Russian– American Mentality (Foreign Service Institute and ERIC, 1986); How to Improve Your Foreign Language Immediately (SLTC, 1990; MSI Press, 2003); Developing Professional-Level Language Proficiency (Cambridge University Press, 2002); and Working with Advanced Foreign-Language Students (MSI Press, 2003). He has lectured extensively in the USA and England. www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Acknowledgments We would like to thank, first and foremost, Dr. Katharina Brett of Cambridge University Press for developing a keen interest in this project and pushing for its being undertaken and completed in a relatively short time frame. Originally, the book was to have been Volume II of Passport to the World: Learning to Communi- cate in a Foreign Language (edited by Leaver, Dubinsky, and Champine), a book that introduces language-learning precepts to high school and college students with no previous language-learning experience. However, Kate convinced us to write a very different book for a rather different audience (university students who perhaps have had a little or a moderate amount of language-learning expe- rience), and that has proved to be a good and interesting suggestion. We would also like to thank Helen Barton for stepping in mid-stream to shepherd the book to completion and for all the support she has given to this project since taking it on. We would also like to thank the Cambridge University Press readers who twice assessed the book’s marketability and contents for us, first as a second volume, then as a different kind of book. The first round of comments very strongly influenced the proposed redesign, and the second set influenced the contents. Few authors are talented enough to write, revise, and refine books entirely on their own. Other eyes and other minds always help. For that reason, we would like to thank the following individuals who read the manuscript version of this book: Nawal Alkhaja, Debra Blake, Tarek Elgendy, Aziza El-Youssoufi- Ghanim, Douglas Gilzow, Sharon Flank, Carl Friborg, Anna Jacobson, Eileen Kaht, Hanan Khaled, Sam Lee, Suzan Melahani, Roxana Ma Newman, Benjamin Rifkin, Richard Robin, Jane Shuffelton, and Melissa T. Smith. Their insights and comments served to make this a better book. Foremost among these individuals has been Dr. Melissa Trimble Smith (Youngstown State University), who has been extremely helpful in the development of this version of the book. Since she has used Passport to the World with her students for several years, she had some very good insights into how the book could be changed to meet the needs of the kinds of students she was working with at the university more precisely. She also shared her suggestions on various sections of the final draft. Her feedback has been very helpful and much appreciated. We would especially like to thank Dr. Roxana Ma Newman, as well, for a very careful look at part I with the eye of a linguist and for providing many suggestions for improvement. We would also like to thank Mahdi Alosh, Tarek Elgendy, and Elizabeth Knutson for answering viii www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Acknowledgments ix specific questions that arose during the writing of this book and Patricia Boylan for facilitating the reading of this manuscript by a team of experienced foreign- language teachers and course developers, as well as Carl Friborg, Sharon Flank, Anna Jacobson, Hanan Khaled, Cornelius Kubler, Sam Lee, John Lett, Roxana Ma Newman, Benjamin Rifkin, and John Thain for information, citations, and examples that we have included in the book. Any errors or omissions are, of course, those of the authors alone. In the case of one of the authors, who works for the US Department of State, the material in this book represents the opinions of the author and not the US government. www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Note to the reader For whom is this book intended? This book was prepared especially for the undergraduate university student with some experience in language learning. If you are such a student, then this book is for you. The goal of the book is to help you improve learning strategies and maximize your strategic competence in ways that will allow you not only to improveyourlanguage-learningefficiencybutalsotointeractwithnativespeakers in communicative ways, using what you already know to its fullest advantage. This book is additionally recommended to current and future foreign language teachers to help them take into consideration their current uses of language- teaching methodology from the viewpoint of their student-learners and to assist them in enhancing/developing reflective practice in teaching that takes into consideration the specific nature of their educational setting and its individual learners. How did this book come into being? This book has come into being through two evolutions. It is the third revision and expansion of the research compiled for (and used in) a previous government multimedia program on learner success and, later, in a book for beginning-level high school and college students. The information has been adapted in this book for the university student who already has some experience in language learning; in addition, much new information has been added. In the mid-1990s, the first author of this book collaborated with a team of course developers in the preparation of a multimedia course intended to increase student success at US government language schools. The course was prepared by the American Global Studies Institute in cooperation with Litton/PRC and under the direction of the Defense Language Institute. Following the completion of the multimedia materials, many of the authors of thosematerialsdevelopedabookthatcouldbeusedbyawideraudience,including their own students. That book was called Passport to the World: Learning to Communicate in a Foreign Language (Leaver, Dubinsky, and Champine, 1999). Passport to the World was intended as a general book for those just starting out in language study, regardless of age and school grade, and, indeed, it has been used x www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Note to the reader xi by high-school and college students and teachers. That book has also been widely shared with language learners around the world through three guest appearances by one or more of its editors on the “Talk to America Show,” hosted by the Voice of America. It was the suggestion of Katharina Brett of Cambridge University Press that this book be transformed (with a great many changes – additions and adaptations) into the current volume. She saw the potential of Passport to the World to become applicable to the university and experienced learner. As a result of her vision and that of unidentified readers of the proposal to revise Passport to the World for a different audience, many new topics have been included. Further, since the audience is intended to be learners who already have some experience in language learning, all topics are explored in significantly greater depth than the topics were treated in the earlier versions. How to use this book This book may be used in a number of ways. Some teachers might want to use it as a textbook in a course about language learning or as a supplemental textbook in a foreign language classroom. Other teachers might want to assign some chapters as homework or recommend it for additional reading. Still others might like to use it as a framework for building their own courses or materials designed to help students become better language learners. As a student, you might find yourself using this book in any one of these situations. If you have just found this book on your own, you might like to read it as a guide to becoming more effective in your language-learning work. For those using the book in class, the preview, summary, and activities built into each chapter can guide teachers and their students in the most efficient use of the book. Each chapter also includes several topics. These topics are interrelated, but teachers and/or their students could easily select some, and not necessarily all, topics. Each topic is described in some detail, followed by the presentation of a concrete application (sample problem and solution). Additional reading sug- gestions for the topic can be found at the end of the chapter. Also at the end of each chapter, there is a review, pulling together all the information into a “big picture.” Following the summary, you can find a set of activities intended to give you practice in the concepts presented in the chapter. Your teacher might have you work these activities out in class, or he or she may assign them as homework. Some of them can engender much discussion. Others are simple exercises meant to develop habits. Answers, where they are obvious and specific, are provided at the back of the book. At the very end of each chapter is a list of further readings. These are books and articles on the various topics presented in the chapter. They are not the reference list of citations used in the chapter; that reference list is at the end of the book. www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  xii Note to the reader Appendices include a glossary of terms, self-evaluations, and other optional forms of assistance for students who wish to improve their language learning efficiency and increase their success. Additional help is also available on the Internet. Description of contents Part 1 Learning Chapter 1. Planning foreign-language study This chapter explores the many reasons for studying a foreign language. It can help teachers and students understand the scope and requirements of language acquisition and guide readers in planning both short-term language learning goals, as well as lifelong language learning activities. Among the factors discussed are various options (including Internet assists, independent learning, use of a native speaker, classroom study, study abroad, etc.), anticipated difficulties, time factors, and other elements that typically appear over the life of a learner who stage by stage improves his or her language ability. Chapter 2. Understanding the role of cognition in the learning process Your language-learning experience will differ, depending on whether this is your first, second, or third language. (By the time you are into a third language, cog- nitive processes used for language learning will be much closer to instinctive.) Regardless, though, of how many languages you have studied, you will fare better in language learning activities if you understand such concepts as decoding and encoding and the difference between knowledge and proficiency if you do not already. Topics covered in this chapter include cognition (thinking processes), memory (storing and recalling what has been studied), aptitude (ability to learn languages), and metacognition (thinking about thinking). Chapter 3. Learning styles and learning strategies This chapter helps you understand your own learning styles. The scales used are sensory preferences (kinesthetic-visual-auditory) and cognitive styles (the E&L Construct). The E&L subscales are introduced and used throughout the chap- ter and the remainder of the book. This chapter also discusses the relationship between learning styles and learning strategies, as well as presenting some com- mon taxonomies of learning strategies. Chapter 4. Understanding feelings and personality in language learning A variety of affective (emotional) variables are presented in this chapter, including foreign-language anxiety, test anxiety, motivation, self-efficacy, personality, ego boundaries, and defense mechanisms. In this chapter, you will find strategies for better managing the emotional aspects of foreign-language learning. www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  Note to the reader xiii Chapter 5. Interpersonal dynamics in the learning process This chapter considers student–student relationships, teacher–student relation- ships, and student–group relationships. Topics include levels of interaction, the importance of group cohesion, individual differences and group dynamics, teach- ers, teacher–student relations, and student–student relations. Part 2 Language Chapter 6. Verbal language This chapter has three sections. The first addresses the nature of linguistic struc- ture. Examples are given from languages belonging to a variety of linguistic categories and comparisons are made with English. Exercises are based on an artificial language, providing an opportunity to practice learning aspects of mor- phology, syntax, and other linguistic characteristics that differ from English. Next, this chapter examines pronunciation, including individual pronunciation, elision, and accent reduction, and other aspects of oral language production are also dis- cussed. Finally, this chapter looks at strategies that help students develop their vocabulary reserve. Chapter 7. Sociolinguistics: the right expression This chapter introduces students to concepts of sociolinguistic competence. It provides specific examples of tailoring language, understanding register (style level), knowing the rules of turn-taking, and strategies for acquiring this kind of competence. Chapter 8. Unspoken communication This chapter looks at the kinds of communication that occur without words. Topics include gestures, cultural behaviors, taboos, personal space, and body language. Part 3 Independence Chapter 9. Self-regulation and learner autonomy This chapter discusses the student’s role in the learning process and how students can take control of their own learning. Topics include cognition in self-regulation, affect in self-regulation, interpersonal dimensions of learner autonomy, and the teacher’s role in self-regulated learning. In addition, the chapter discusses – and dispels – some common myths about independent learning. Chapter 10. Controlling spoken and written communication This chapter addresses topics that are more common outside the classroom than inside. It explains the linguistic interrelationship between participants in a con- versation and provides suggestions on how to handle the unevenness in linguistic ability in these situations successfully through tactics for managing speech. This www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information  xiv Note to the reader can immensely benefit continuing students who have already developed some language ability but do not necessarily know how to use that ability to greatest advantage. Epilogue: from here to there: attaining near-native proficiency Most students will be taking a language for university requirements or general interest. Few are likely to make a career based exclusively on language skill. For those of you who do, however, the typical level of language proficiency attained in a university foreign-language program is insufficient for professional use of the foreign language. This chapter describes what you will need to do to bridge the gap from very good proficiency to near-native proficiency, based on the limited current research and teaching programs available at this level. Appendix A. Answers to “practicing what you have learned” Appendix A contains suggested responses to the practical exercises. In cases where there are no concrete answers, discussions are included. Appendix B. Learning strategies taxonomies Appendix B provides a listing of the more common learning strategies tax- onomies. Students and teachers interested in these taxonomies can explore them further if they so desire. Reference list The reference list contains all the works cited in this book. In addition, each chapter contains a list of pertinent books, articles, and websites for readers who would like to explore the chapter topics in greater depth. www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 052154663X - Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition Betty Lou Leaver, Madeline Ehrman, and Boris Shekhtman Frontmatter More information