Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents (PDF)

 Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents Second Edition  Cambridge Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Child and adolescent psychiatry is an important and growing area of clinical psychiatry. The last decade has seen a rapid expansion of scientific knowledge in this field and has provided a new understanding of the underlying pathology of mental disorders in these age groups. This series is aimed at practitioners and researchers both in child and adolescent mental health services and in developmental and clinical neuroscience. Focusing on psychopathology, it highlights those topics where the growth of knowledge has had the greatest impact on clinical practice and on the treatment and understanding of mental illness. Individual volumes benefit from both the international expertise of their contributors and also from a coherence generated through a uniform style and structure for the series. Each volume provides, first, a historical overview and a clear descriptive account of the psychopathology of a specific disorder or group of related disorders. These features then form the basis for a thorough critical review of the etiology, natural history, management, prevention, and impact on later adult adjustment. While each volume is therefore complete in its own right, volumes also relate to each other to create a flexible and collectable series that should appeal to students as well as experienced scientists and practitioners. Editorial Board Series editor Professor Ian M. Goodyer University of Cambridge Associate editors Dr Robert N. Goodman Institute of Psychiatry, London Professor Barry Nurcombe The University of Queensland Professor Dr Helmut Remschmidt Klinikum der Philipps-Universit¨at, Marburg, Germany Professor Dr Herman van Engeland Academisch Ziekenhuis Utrecht Professor Fred R. Volkmar Yale Child Study Center Already published in this series: Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, Second edition edited by Fred R. Volkmar 9780521549578 paperback Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents edited by Tony Jaffa and Brett McDermott 9780521613125 paperback Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Children and Families, Second edition edited by Philip Graham 9780521529921 paperback Suicide in Children and Adolescents edited by Robert A. King and Alan Apter 9780521622264 paperback Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders of Childhood, Second edition edited by Seija Sandberg 9780521789615 paperback Outcomes in Neurodevelopmental and Genetic Disorders edited by Patricia Howlin and Orlee Udwin 9780521797214 paperback Practical Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology edited by Stan Kutcher 9780521655422 paperback Specific Learning Disabilities and Difficulties in Children and Adolescents: Psychological Assessment and Evaluation edited by Alan Kaufman and Nadeen Kaufman 9780521658409 paperback Psychotherapy with Children and Adolescents edited by Helmut Remschmidt 9780521576727 paperback The Depressed Child and Adolescent, Second edition edited by Ian M. Goodyer 9780521775588 paperback Schizophrenia in Children and Adolescents edited by Helmut Renschmidt 9780521794282 paperback Conduct Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence edited by Jonathan Hill and Barbara Maughan 9780521786393 paperback  Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents Second Edition Edited by Wendy K. Silverman Professor of Psychology and Director of the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA Andy P. Field Professor of Child Psychopathology at the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK  cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, S˜ao Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521721486 c⃝ Cambridge University Press 2001, 2011 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First edition published in 2001 by Cambridge University Press Second edition published in 2011 by Cambridge University Press Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in publication data Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents / edited by Wendy K. Silverman, Andy Field. – 2nd ed. p. ; cm. – (Cambridge child and adolescent psychiatry) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-521-72148-6 (pbk.) 1. Anxiety in children. 2. Anxiety in adolescence. 3. Child psychotherapy. 4. Adolescent psychotherapy. I. Silverman, Wendy K. II. Field, Andy P. III. Title. IV. Series: Cambridge child and adolescent psychiatry series. [DNLM: 1. Anxiety Disorders – diagnosis. 2. Anxiety Disorders – therapy. 3. Adolescent Development. 4. Adolescent. 5. Child Development. 6. Child. WM 172] RJ506.A58A585 2011 618.92′8522 – dc23 2011017972 ISBN 978-0-521-72148-6 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Every effort has been made in preparing this book to provide accurate and up-to-date information which is in accord with accepted standards and practice at the time of publication. Although case histories are drawn from actual cases, every effort has been made to disguise the identities of the individuals involved. Nevertheless, the authors, editors, and publishers can make no warranties that the information contained herein is totally free from error, not least because clinical standards are constantly changing through research and regulation. The authors, editors, and publishers therefore disclaim all liability for direct or consequential damages resulting from the use of material contained in this book. Readers are strongly advised to pay careful attention to information provided by the manufacturer of any drugs or equipment that they plan to use.  This book is dedicated to Daniel and Rachel WKS Dedicated to Grandad Alf and Grandad Harry, to whom I aspire to be APF   Contents List of contributors page ix Preface xiii Section 1 Historical and conceptual issues 1 Anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents in historical perspective 3 Philip D. A. Treffers and Wendy K. Silverman 2 The clinical phenomenology and classification of child and adolescent anxiety 25 Antonio Castro Fonseca and Sean Perrin 3 The developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders: phenomenology, prevalence, and comorbidity 56 E. Jane Costello, Helen L. Egger, William Copeland, Alaattin Erkanli, and Adrian Angold 4 The “normal” development of fear 76 Peter Muris and Andy P. Field 5 Social anxiety disorder: a normal fear gone awry? 90 Caroline L. Bokhorst and P. Michiel Westenberg 6 Information processing biases in child and adolescent anxiety: a developmental perspective 103 Andy P. Field, Julie A. Hadwin, and Kathryn J. Lester 7 Adult models of anxiety and their application to children and adolescents 129 Sam Cartwright-Hatton, Shirley Reynolds, and Charlotte Wilson Section 2 The biology of child and adolescent anxiety 8 The genetic basis of child and adolescent anxiety 161 Alice M. Gregory and Thalia C. Eley 9 The brain and behavior in childhood and adolescent anxiety disorders 179 Daniel S. Pine 10 Temperament and anxiety in children and adolescents 198 Christopher J. Lonigan, Beth M. Phillips, Shauna B. Wilson, and Nicholas P. Allan vii  viii Contents Section 3 Environmental influences on child and adolescent anxiety 11 The role of learning in the etiology of child and adolescent fear and anxiety 227 Andy P. Field and Helena M. Purkis 12 Traumatic events 257 Patrick Smith, Sean Perrin, and William Yule 13 Child–parent relations: attachment and anxiety disorders 280 Katharina Manassis 14 Parenting and child anxiety 299 Cathy Creswell, Lynne Murray, James Stacey, and Peter Cooper 15 Peer influences 323 Annette M. La Greca and Ryan R. Landoll Section 4 Prevention and treatment of child and adolescent anxiety 16 Prevention of child and adolescent anxiety disorders 349 Heidi J. Lyneham and Ron M. Rapee 17 Pharmacological management of childhood and adolescent anxiety disorders 367 Laurel Pelligrino, Courtney Pierce, and John T. Walkup 18 Treatment: an update and recommendations 392 Wendy K. Silverman and Luci M. Motoca Index 419  Contributors Nicholas P. Allan Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Adrian Angold Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Caroline L. Bokhorst Leiden University Institute of Psychology, Leiden, the Netherlands Sam Cartwright-Hatton School of Psychology, University of Manchester, UK Peter Cooper School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, UK William Copeland Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA E. Jane Costello Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Cathy Creswell School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, UK Helen L. Egger Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Thalia C. Eley Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College, London, UK Alaattin Erkanli Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA Andy P. Field School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK Antonio Castro Fonseca Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Portugal Alice M. Gregory Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, UK Julie A. Hadwin Developmental Brain–Behaviour Laboratory, University of Southampton, UK Annette M. La Greca Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA Ryan R. Landoll Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA ix  x List of contributors Kathryn J. Lester Child Anxiety Theory and Treatment Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK Christopher J. Lonigan Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Heidi J. Lyneham Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, NSW, Australia Katharina Manassis Anxiety Disorders Program, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Luci M. Motoca Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA Peter Muris Erasmus University Rotterdam Institute of Psychology, Woudestein, Rotterdam, the Netherlands Lynne Murray School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, UK Laurel Pelligrino Weill Cornell Medical College and New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA Sean Perrin Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK Beth M. Phillips Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Courtney Pierce Weill Cornell Medical College and New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA Daniel S. Pine Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD, USA Helena M. Purkis School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Ron M. Rapee Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, NSW, Australia Shirley Reynolds School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Wendy K. Silverman Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA Patrick Smith Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK James Stacey Department of Clinical Psychology, Oxford University, UK Philip D. A. Treffers Lieu dit Boulen, Mahalon, France John T. Walkup Weill Cornell Medical College and New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA  xi List of contributors P. Michiel Westenberg Leiden University Institute of Psychology, Leiden, the Netherlands Charlotte Wilson School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Shauna B. Wilson Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA William Yule Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK   Preface This book began life in 1997 at an international research conference on anxiety disorders in children and adolescents hosted by CURIUM, Academic Centre of Child and Ado- lescent Psychiatry, Leiden University. Up until that time, child and adolescent anxiety disorder research was largely consumed within treatment and research initiatives aimed at anxiety generally (and typically in adult populations). In fact, a web of knowledge (http://wok.mimas.ac.uk/) search for “child anxiety” or “adolescent anxiety” up to the year 1997 reveals only 30 articles in peer-review journals with those terms as their main topic. This published output does not imply that clinicians and researchers had no interest in child and adolescent anxiety, but that it was finding its feet as a discipline in its own right. The meeting in Leiden was a response to the need to get clinicians and researchers together to discuss the emerging wisdom on theory, assessment, and intervention of child and adolescent anxiety. Professor Philip Treffers, along with Wendy, organized the Leiden conference while she was on sabbatical there. The resulting first edition of this text contained chapters predominantly based on presentations given at the conference. In the four years between the meeting and the publication of the book in 2001, a further 88 papers had been published with child or adolescent anxiety as their core topic; three times as many as had been published in the 100 or so years before the Leiden meeting. These data show that the book came out at a time when the field was expanding; it represented an important snapshot of this emerging field. This meeting in Leiden was also the first time that we met. Andy presented a paper co-authored by himself and his Ph.D. supervisor, Professor Graham Davey, and also con- tributed a chapter to the first edition based on this paper. The next time we met was in 2006 at the Anxiety Disorders Association of America Annual Conference in Maimi. In this five years a great deal had changed in the field: child and adolescent anxiety had established itself as a burgeoning scientific discipline. Our meeting in Miami was in a symposium dedicated to child and adolescent anxiety. During the course of our conversation, Andy told Wendy that he would really like to see an updated version of this book, and Wendy suggested that he might join her and Philip as an editor. He agreed. As we initiated the project, Philip graciously gave the two of us the green light to produce the second edition as the volume’s co-editors. We hope that he takes pride in what we have done to extend and update his initial book. Thus, the desire to update this book emanated from the rapid expansion of research and treatment practice. In the years since the first edition came out and now (2001– 2010) another 347 papers have been published with child and adolescent anxiety at their xiii  xiv Preface core. Again, this represents a three-fold increase in research output in the last nine years compared to before that time. This version of the book bears only slight resemblance to its predecessor because the field has changed so much in the past decade. To reflect these changes we went back to the drawing board and the book is now divided into four sections that we believe reflect the broad themes of research over the past 10 years. We will outline these specific developments below, but one global theme is a growing appreciation of the need to consider the social, cognitive, and emotional development of the child/adolescent when thinking about psychopathology. We have several chapters that specifically address this issue but have also asked contributors to consider developmental issues in their chapters. Section 1: Historical and conceptual issues This section retains an updated version of the last edition’s overview of the historical development (Treffers and Silverman) and clinical phenomenology (Fonseca and Perrin) of child and adolescent anxiety research. This volume adds chapters that look at the developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders (Costello, Egger, Copeland, Erkanli, and Angold) and at the normal developmental pattern of fears generally (Muris and Field) and social anxiety disorder specifically (Bokhorst and Westenberg). The last 10 years has seen a burgeoning interest in information processing in child and adolescent anxiety and two new chapters explore the role of development in information processing biases (Field, Hadwin, and Lester) and the success of adult models of anxiety when applied downward to child samples (Cartwright-Hatton, Reynolds, and Wilson). Section 2: The biology of child and adolescent anxiety The past 10 years has seen an exponential increase in our understanding of both the genetic contribution (Gregory and Eley) to child and adolescent anxiety and the brain structures that underlie it (Pine). Therefore, we have added two new chapters on these topics. In the previous edition, we had a chapter on behavioral inhibition, but for this edition we expanded this topic to discuss temperament more generally and with specific emphasis on the links between temperament, brain, and genetics (Lonigan, Phillips, Wilson, and Allan). Section 3: Environmental influences on child and adolescent anxiety We now know that environmental factors explain around two-thirds of the variance in childhood and adolescence and in this part of the book we have tried to focus on the main environmental factors. We have retained expanded and updated chapters on the role of learning (Field and Purkis), traumatic experiences (Smith, Perrin, and Yule), attachment (Manassis), and peer influences (La Greca and Landoll). In addition, we have added a chapter on parental influence because of the surge of interest in the intergenerational transmission of anxiety (Creswell, Murray, Stacey, and Cooper). Section 4: Prevention and treatment of child and adolescent anxiety There have been significant developments in prevention and treatment of child and adoles- cent anxiety disorders since the last edition. This final section retains an updated chapter on