Body Image and Participant Characteristics in Emerging Adults (PDF)

University of Northern Colorado Scholarship & Creative Works @ Digital UNC Dissertations Student Research 8-2018 Body Image and Participant Characteristics in Emerging Adults Amber Green Follow this and additional works at: https://digscholarship.unco.edu/dissertations This Text is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Research at Scholarship & Creative Works @ Digital UNC. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholarship & Creative Works @ Digital UNC. For more information, please contact [email protected] Recommended Citation Green, Amber, "Body Image and Participant Characteristics in Emerging Adults" (2018). Dissertations. 493. https://digscholarship.unco.edu/dissertations/493  UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN COLORADO Greeley, Colorado The Graduate School BODY IMAGE AND PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS IN EMERGING ADULTS A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Amber Green College of Education and Behavioral Science Department of School Psychology School Psychology August 2018  This Dissertation by: Amber Green Entitled: Body Image and Participant Characteristics in Emerging Adults has been approved as meeting the requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in College of Education and Behavioral Sciences in Department of School Psychology, Program of School Psychology Accepted by the Doctoral Committee: ______________________________________________________ Achilles N. Bardos, Ph.D., Research Advisor _______________________________________________________ David Hulac, Ph.D., Committee Member _______________________________________________________ Brian D. Johnson, Ph.D., Committee Member _______________________________________________________ Eric Peterson, Ph.D., Faculty Representative Date of Dissertation Defense _______________________________ Accepted by the Graduate School _________________________________________________________ Linda L. Black, Ed.D. Associate Provost and Dean Graduate School and International Admissions  iii ABSTRACT Green, Amber. Body Image and Participant Characteristics in Emerging Adults. Published Doctor of Philosophy dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, 2018. Positive evaluations of one’s body, or positive body image, is associated with healthy outcomes. Conversely, negative evaluations of one’s body, or negative body image, is a significant risk factor for unhealthy outcomes including eating disorders. Yet, these constructs have not been explored conjointly or in individuals with self-reported levels of positive and negative body image. The goal of the current study was to examine associations among positive, negative, and average levels of body image and a set of participant characteristics including body mass index (BMI), fitness levels, psychological well-being, and attitudes/behaviors toward social media in emerging adults (N = 439). Unique to this study, only individuals with self-reported levels of positive (n = 60) and negative (n = 78) body image were included to examine positive and negative body image. Participant characteristics that contributed to body image within the negative and positive body image groups were not significant; however, factors that had the greatest contribution differed between groups. When all levels of body image among all 439 participants were examined, those with higher rates of body image were associated with higher rates of psychological well-being, higher fitness levels/attitudes toward fitness, and lower BMI. Although the effect size was small, body image levels varied by gender  iv with females reporting lower levels of body image than males. Although speculative due to the sample size, interesting trends were observed among five gender non-conforming individuals. These individuals, when compared to males and females, reported lower mean scores on the measures of negative body image and psychological well-being. The results suggested body image is best conceptualized as distinct constructs of positive, negative, and average with varying contributing factors and should be studied as such. Future research on positive body image should include those individuals with positive body image. Similarly, research on negative body image should include those individuals with negative body image to better understand what factors contribute to these constructs and to provide targeted interventions to increase positive body image and decrease negative body image.  v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS At times, completing a Ph.D. program seems like a long, arduous journey. It was during these times that I leaned on the love and support of my family and friends. A special thank you goes to my partner, Tyson. His unwavering support through late night chocolate runs when I was stressed and reading and editing of papers is a testament to his dedication. I love you, thank you for standing by my side through this five-year journey. To my parents, thank you for instilling and cultivating my desire for education. From a young age, you encouraged me to pursue my dreams no matter what they were. I cannot adequately express how much I appreciate your love, encouragement, and support through this journey. I am the person I am today because of you. Love you! Family not only includes the one we are born into but the family we obtain along the way. I have the pleasure of belonging to and being accepted into a family that supports my dreams and ambitions. For that, thank you, Grandma Tina, Aunt Patty, Melanie, Rebecca, Mitchell, Rick, and Mallorie for all of the support. I love you all! I would be remiss not to thank my advisor, Dr. Bardos. Thank you for all the help and advice! I appreciate your guidance with my career and dissertation. I have enjoyed working with you. To Dr. Hess, thank you all of your help throughout my graduate school journey. You always go above and beyond for students! Thank you to all of my committee members for your input and advice! Last, thank you to my friends I made in  vi graduate school and my cohort. Thank you for the late-night study sessions, the encouragement, and comradery. We did it!  vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 1 Background........................................................................................................ 1 Rationale for the Study .................................................................................... 10 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................ 11 Research Questions.......................................................................................... 12 Delimitations.................................................................................................... 12 Definition of Terms.......................................................................................... 13 Summary.......................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................................. 16 Body Image History......................................................................................... 16 Theories of Body Image Disturbance .............................................................. 18 Positive Body Image........................................................................................ 25 Body Image Dissatisfaction ............................................................................. 27 Contributing Factors to Body Image................................................................ 30 Summary.......................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 47 Research Design............................................................................................... 47 Participants....................................................................................................... 48 Measures .......................................................................................................... 50 Procedure ......................................................................................................... 58 Data Analysis................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER IV. RESULTS........................................................................................... 69 Descriptive Analyses ....................................................................................... 69 Preliminary Statistical Analysis....................................................................... 79 Analysis of Research Questions....................................................................... 86 Summary.......................................................................................................... 99  viii CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION.................................................................................... 101 Positive Body Image...................................................................................... 101 Negative Body Image .................................................................................... 105 All Levels of Body Image.............................................................................. 106 Gender Differences ........................................................................................ 109 Limitations ..................................................................................................... 111 Recommendations for Future Research......................................................... 112 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 114 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 119 APPENDIX A. THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL BODY-SELF RELATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE ....................................................................................... 148 APPENDIX B. MULTIDIMENSIONAL BODY-SELF RELATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE GENDER NORMS....................................................... 150 APPENDIX C. COPING WITH BODY IMAGE CHALLENGES SCALE ............ 152 APPENDIX D. COPING WITH BODY IMAGE CHALLENGES SCALE GENDER NORMS........................................................................................ 154 APPENDIX E. DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ................................................ 156 APPENDIX F. JOURNEY TO WELLNESS SCALE .............................................. 158 APPENDIX G. SOCIAL MEDIA USE INTEGRATION SCALE........................... 161 APPENDIX H. INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL...................... 163 APPENDIX I. CONSENT FORM FOR HUMAN PARTICIPATION IN RESEARCH................................................................................................... 165 APPENDIX J. QUALTRICS SURVEY.................................................................... 168 APPENDIX K. FACTOR LOADINGS OF EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS WITH OBLIQUE ROTATION OF THE JOURNEY TO WELLNESS SCALE..................................................................................... 185  ix LIST OF TABLES 1. Participant Characteristics by Body Image Levels as a Percentage of the Sample ....................................................................................................... 75 2. Total Means and Standard Deviations on the Multidimensional Body- Self Relations Questionnaire Subscales, Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory Scale, Journey to Wellness Scale, and Social Media Use Integration Scale .............................................................................................. 76 3. Gender Means and Standard Deviations on the Multidimensional Body- Self Relations Questionnaire Subscales, Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory Scale, Journey to Wellness Scale, and Social Media Use Integration Scale .............................................................................................. 78 4. Race/Ethnicity Means and Standard Deviations on the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire Subscales, Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory Scale, Journey to Wellness Scale, and Social Media Use Integration Scale ....................................................................................... 79 5. Total Variance Explained by the Ten-Factor Model ....................................... 82 6. Analysis of Variance Differences in Body Image Scales Based on Gender.... 88 7. Correlations Between Predictor Variables Positive Body Image Group ......... 90 8. Multiple Regression Analysis between Participant Characteristic Indicators and Positive Body Image ................................................................ 91 9. Correlations Between Predictor Variables Negative Body Image Group ....... 92 10. Multiple Regression Analysis between Participant Characteristic Indicators and Negative Body Image............................................................... 93 11. Hierarchal Multiple Regression on Positive Body Image for Participant Characteristics with Moderator Psychological Well-Being............................. 95 12. Hierarchal Multiple Regression on Negative Body Image for Participant Characteristics with Moderator Psychological Well-Being...............................96  x 13. Canonical Solution for Body Image and Participant Characteristics for Function 1 ........................................................................................................ 99  xi LIST OF FIGURES 1. Plot for initial factor solution using principal component analysis ................. 81  1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background Body Image Definition An individual’s conceptualization of his/her body or body image is recognized as an important concept in the field of psychology. Body image encompasses both negative and positive evaluations of the body. Negative evaluations of one’s body or body dissatisfaction is a significant risk factor for unhealthy outcomes including eating disorders (Killen et al., 1996; Stice, 2002). Accordingly, positive evaluations of one’s body are associated with healthy outcomes (Avalos, Tylka, & Wood-Barcalow, 2005). Unfortunately, much of the research on body image focuses on pathologies associated with body dissatisfaction. While this research is imperative as body dissatisfaction is a significant risk factor for eating disorders (Killen et al., 1996; Stice, 2002), in recent years, a movement within psychology has advocated for prevention and promotion of positive outcomes rather than interventions for negative outcomes. Thus, identifying factors that contribute to both negative and positive body image fit well within a preventative model as the promotion of positive body image encourages healthy, positive outcomes. Body image was originally defined as “the picture of our own body which we form in our mind” (Schilder, 1936, p. 11). Over the past 81 years, this understanding of  2 body image has evolved to include behaviors, affect, and cognition. Today, body image is commonly defined as a multidimensional concept consisting of perception, cognition, affect, and behavior (Banfield & McCabe, 2002; Grogan, 2006, 2008; Muth & Cash, 1997). Body dissatisfaction and positive body image are two distinct concepts as the absence of body dissatisfaction does not indicate a healthy representation of one’s body (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Much of the research on body image emerged from clinical psychology work on eating pathologies of young women (Grogan, 2006; Posavac, Posavac, & Weigel, 2001); as such, body dissatisfaction receives much of the attention in the literature. Consequences of Body Dissatisfaction One identified group at particular risk for eating disorders and body dissatisfaction is emerging adults. Emerging adulthood is a distinct developmental period between the ages of 18 and 25 (Arnett, 2000). Due to changing economic and social trends, emerging adults in the 21st century are getting married later and obtaining higher levels of education than previous generations. Arnett (2000) argued these sociocultural changes create a unique and distinct age group between adolescences and adulthood. Consistent with Arnett, emerging adults were the focus of this current study as this developmental period is fraught with new challenges and body image threats. Examining body image of emerging adults is important as the onset of anorexia nervosa commonly begins during adolescence and young adulthood (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013) with a median age of onset between 18 and 20 (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007). The onset of anorexia is typically associated with a stressful life event such as living alone for the first time, leaving home for college,  3 and increased responsibility (APA, 2013). Accordingly, the prevalence of eating disorders increases in college students. The 12-month prevalence rate of anorexia and bulimia nervosa in young females is .4% and 1%-1.5%, respectively (APA, 2013). A significant risk factor for eating disorders is body dissatisfaction (Killen et al., 1996; Stice, 2002). Although the prevalence rates of eating disorders are below 2%, the rates of undergraduate students dissatisfied with their body are significantly higher (Forrest & Stuhldreher, 2007; Mintem, Horta, Domingues, & Gigante, 2015; Neighbors & Sobal, 2007). A national survey of undergraduate college students found 50% of students reported trying to lose weight despite only 28% of them being classified as overweight or obese (Wharton, Adams, & Hampl, 2008). Body dissatisfaction is associated with increases in negative mood, levels of depression, lowered self-esteem (Bessenoff, 2006; Fallon & Hausenblas, 2005; Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004; Paxton, Neumark-Sztainer, Hannan, & Eisenberg, 2006), and partial and clinical eating disorders (Killen et al., 1996; Stice, 2002; Stice & Shaw, 2002). Stice (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of risk factors for eating pathology. Body dissatisfaction was identified as a risk factor for dieting, negative affect, and eating pathology. Developmentally, body dissatisfaction is associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescent and children (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004; Paxton et al., 2006). Paxton et al. (2006) demonstrated body dissatisfaction of early adolescent girls was a significant predictor of depressive symptom at a five-year follow-up. This trend was not observed in mid-adolescent girls with body satisfaction. These findings