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BODY IMAGE EVALUATION, INVESTMENT, AND AFFECT: THE ROLE OF ETHNICITY AND ACCULTURATION IN COLLEGE FEMALES BY Angela M. Lipschuetz B.A. Kansas State University, 1999 M.S. University of Kansas, 2002 Submitted to the graduate degree program in the Department of Psychology and Research in Education and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Counseling Psychology. _________________________ James W. Lichtenberg, Ph.D. Committee Chairperson Committee members _________________________ Thomas S. Krieshok, Ph.D. _________________________ Suzanne Rice, Ph.D. _________________________ Bruce Frey, Ph.D. _________________________ Tamara Mikinski, Ph.D. _________________________ Date dissertation defended  ii The Dissertation Committee for Angela M. Lipschuetz certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: BODY IMAGE EVALUATION, INVESTMENT, AND AFFECT: THE ROLE OF ETHNICITY AND ACCULTURATION IN COLLEGE FEMALES Committee: _________________________ James W. Lichtenberg, Ph.D. Committee Chairperson _________________________ Thomas S. Krieshok, Ph.D. _________________________ Suzanne Rice, Ph.D. _________________________ Bruce Frey, Ph.D. _________________________ Tamara Mikinski, Ph.D. Date Approved: ____________  iii ABSTRACT Historically, the Hispanic population has been underrepresented in body image research. The small number of body image research studies including Hispanic women indicated White women have a higher level of body dissatisfaction. However, current body image research indicates White and Hispanic women indicate the same level of body dissatisfaction (Grabe & Hyde, 2006). This study examined body image in White and Hispanic women and examined the role of acculturation and within- group differences for body image in Hispanic women. To address limitations of and replicate previous studies, BMI, age, and education level were included as covariates. Furthermore, body image was viewed as a multi-dimensional concept. Following the proposal of Cash (1994a), body image was measured as three dimensions: evaluation, investment, and affect. Lastly, acculturation was measured as a bidimensional concept. A total of 465 participants, 360 White women and 105 Hispanic women, completed the Appearance Evaluation and Appearance Orientation subscales of The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) (Brown, et al.,1990), the Situational Inventory of Body-Image Dysphoria (SIBID) (Cash, 1994b), the Bidimensional Acculturation Scale (BAS) (Marin & Gamba, 1996), and a demographic questionnaire. Results indicated White and Hispanic women experience the same level of body dissatisfaction and time invested in their appearance. However, White and Hispanic women do differ in their experience of negative emotions related to their appearance. The results did not differ when controlling for covariates. In addition, no differences were discovered when examining acculturation  iv and within-group differences in Hispanic women which can be attributed to the lack of diversity within the sample of Hispanic participants. These results support current research findings indicating Hispanic women experience the same level of body image concerns as White women. Furthermore, this warrants increased awareness of the need for body image prevention and treatment in Hispanic women.  v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I want to thank Dr. James Lichtenberg, my dissertation chair, for his assistance and support throughout this process. Working at a distance made the process more difficult at times, but he stuck with me and made accommodations for the fact I was more than a thousand miles away from his office. Additionally, I would like to express my appreciation for my committee, Dr. Tom Krieshok, Dr. Suzanne Rice, Dr. Bruce Frey, and Dr. Tamara Mikinski, who willingly gave their time to help me through this process. I want to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Craig Enders, Dr. Robyn McKay, Dr. Janet Dean, and Maggie Lee Syme for their assistance in providing statistical and editing feedback and support. With their input and readiness to help on short notice, I was able to confidently move forward through each chapter. Last, but not least, I would like to thank my friends and family, throughout the country, for their support over the years while I have been working to complete my degree. Big thanks go out to my Mom and Dad, who spent countless hours on the phone with an open ear. Everyone was steadfast in their empathy and words of encouragement, all the way to the finish line.  vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Page Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………….. 1 Role of Culture in Body Dissatisfaction…………………………….................... 3 Acculturation and Body Image…………………………………………….......... 5 Body Image Evaluation, Investment, and Affect………………………………... 7 Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………….. 8 Research questions and Hypotheses………………………….……………......... 9 Chapter 2: Review of the Literature……………………………………………... 11 Body Image…………………………………………………..…………….......... 11 Psychological Perspectives……………………………………………………… 11 Sociocultural Perspective.….……………………………………………….. 11 Self-Objectification Theory..……………………………………………….. 13 Body Image Development...…………………………………………….............. 14 Body-Image Evaluation, Investment, and Affect.…………………………......... 16 Cross-Cultural Differences in Body Image……………………………………… 20 Acculturation…………………………………………………………………….. 31 Integrated Summary…………………………………………………………….. 35 Chapter 3: Method………………………………………………………………. 37 Participants……………………………………………………………………… 37  vii Instruments………………………………………………………………………. 40 The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire……………… 40 Situational Inventory of Body-Image Dysphoria………………………... 42 Bidimensional Acculturation Scale………………….…………………... 43 Demographic Questionnaire……………………………………………... 47 Procedure…………………………………………………………………........... 47 Data Analysis…..…………………………………………………………........... 48 Research Questions and Hypotheses.…………………………………………… 48 Chapter 4: Results……………………………………………………………….. 51 Ethnic Differences………………………………………………………………. 51 Acculturation……………………………………………………………………. 56 Hispanic Within-Group Differences……………………………………………. 57 Chapter 5: Discussion…………………………………………………………... 59 Summary of the Study………………………………………………………….. 59 Review and Discussion of the Main Findings………………………………….. 61 Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………....... 66 Directions for Future Research…………………………………………………. 67 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… 68 References…………………………………………………………………........ 70  viii Appendices Appendix A: Email Solicitation for Research Participants………………. 81 Appendix B: Internet Information Statement…………………………….. 83 Appendix C: Demographic Data Form…………………………………… 84 Appendix D: Bidimensional Acculturation Scale………………………… 86 Appendix E: Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire……... 88 Appendix F: Situational Inventory of Body-Image Dysphoria…………… 94 Tables Table 1: Demographics………………………………………………….. 39 Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations on the Dependent Variables for Ethnicity……………………………………………………. 52 Table 3: Interrcorrelations Between Covariates and Dependent Variables………………………………………………………. 54 Table 4: Means and Standard Deviations for Covariates……………….... Table 5: Means and Standard Deviations on the Dependent Variables for Acculturation…………………………………………………… 57 Table 6: Means and Standard Deviations on the Dependent Variables for Nationality of Origin…………………………………………… 58  1 Chapter I Introduction In the early twenty-first century, women from all backgrounds and walks of life have a greater chance than ever before of being exposed to standards of beauty that are most likely impossible to achieve by healthy means. Magazines, television, and movies expose women to a model-thin ideal. Over the years, the ideal body size has decreased with actresses, fashion models, and beauty pageant contestants becoming increasingly slender (Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992), and women now compare themselves and strive to attain an even thinner ideal body size than in past generations. Up to 83% of women and girls read fashion magazines and these women and girls watch up to 4 hours of television each day (Tiggemann, 2002). Continuous media exposure to a model-thin ideal may contribute to women’s dissatisfaction with their bodies and, consequently, a poor body image. Historically, body image has been defined by diverse groups of psychologists, physicians, and philosophers. Although body image research has grown over the past 50 years, integration of the diverse definitions and theories of body image has not occurred (Pruzinsky & Cash, 2002). In describing the complexity of body image, Pruzinsky and Cash observed that “despite its long history, the concept of body image has remained rather elusive, in part because it has meant different things to different scientists and practitioners” (p. 7). In 1935, body image was described as “the tridimensional image everyone has about himself” (Schilder, 1935, p. 11). Schilder  2 proposed that one could visualize the body from the front, sides, and back, but not all three at the same time. From the psychodynamic perspective, body image has been defined as “the cumulative set of images, fantasies, and meanings about the body and its parts and functions; it is an integral component of self-image and the basis of self- representation” (Krueger, 2002, p. 31). In contrast to unidimensional theories of body image that focus solely on the dimension of body satisfaction-dissatisfaction (Frederick, Forbes, Grigorian, & Jarcho, 2007; Robinson et al., 1996), Cash (1994) proposed a cognitive-behavioral, multidimensional view of body image that includes three dimensions: evaluation, investment, and affect. Evaluation refers to the satisfaction-dissatisfaction component, investment refers to the behaviors one devotes to appearance, and affect refers to the emotions one feels in relation to appearance. Cash’s multidimensional approach to body image will be discussed in detail throughout this study. Body dissatisfaction, one factor of body image, is an important concept to understand and examine because it has been found to predict negative psychological consequences including disordered eating, depression, and suicide (Johnson & Wardle, 2005; Rodriguez-Cano, Beato-Fernandez, & Llario, 2006; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Of all the factors that have been identified as predictors of disordered eating, body dissatisfaction is the factor often recognized as the strongest predictor of disordered eating (Phelps, Johnston, & Augustyniak, 1999; Polivy & Herman, 2002).  3 Role of Culture in Body Dissatisfaction Previous literature indicated ethnic minority women had fewer dieting concerns and better body image than White American women (Grabe & Hyde, 2006). As a result, a stereotype developed in the United States that White women have greater body dissatisfaction than non-White women (Gray, Ford, & Kelly, 1987; Nevo, 1985; Rucker & Cash, 1992). This stereotype has led to common terms such as “golden girl’s disease” and “white female phenomenon” that some experts believe have excluded non-White women from disordered eating treatment and research (Mastria, 2002). The limited research on ethnic minorities in the body image literature may lead practitioners to underdiagnose eating disorders in minority women due to the myth that minority women do not develop eating disorders (Hotelling, 2001). However, Shaw, Ramirez, Trost, Randall, and Stice (2004) found no difference in terms of eating disturbances across the ethnic groups that they studied: Asian, Black, Hispanic, and White. Furthermore, out of five generations of Mexican-American women, second generation Mexican-American women had the highest disordered eating patterns and may be at the greatest risk for developing eating disorders (Chamorro & Flores-Ortiz, 2000). Even though the focus of research on ethnic minority women has increased in the past few years, research on body image in Hispanic women is still limited. Given that the Hispanic community makes up 12.5 % of the U.S. population, and is one of  4 the fastest growing minority groups (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004), more research exploring body image in Hispanic participants is needed. Grabe and Hyde (2006) conducted a meta-analysis that examined the differences in body dissatisfaction among ethnic subgroups based on 98 articles from 41 different journals. Despite the fact the Hispanic population is rapidly growing in the United States, only 35 percent of the research studies included in the meta- analysis included Hispanic participants. In contrast, 97 percent of the research studies included Black participants. The authors called for a broader scope of research to further the understanding of ethnic differences in body image dissatisfaction. Furthermore, the researchers specifically called for more research on body image attitudes in Asian American and Hispanic women and for more research on body dissatisfaction among subgroups of women. In the research that included Hispanic participants, there seem to be discrepancies regarding whether or not there are differences in the level of body dissatisfaction between White and Hispanic women. Earlier research found differences in the level of body dissatisfaction between White and non-White women (Franko & Herrera, 1997). However, as previously discussed, more recent research suggests little-to-no difference in body dissatisfaction between White and Hispanic women. There is even evidence that Hispanic females have a higher level of body dissatisfaction than White females (McComb & Clopton, 2002).  5 Acculturation and Body Image The classic definition of acculturation states that “acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups” (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936, p. 149). Acculturation has often been viewed as a unidimensional process, wherein individuals move from one end of a spectrum to another (Franko & Herrera, 1997; Lopez, Blix, & Blix, 1995; Pumariega, 1986). In contrast, Marin and Gamba (1996) propose that acculturation for Hispanics is a bidimensional process, in which Hispanic people move along two domains: Hispanic and non-Hispanic. In contrast to the unidimensional acculturation theory that proposes a spectrum where gains towards the non-Hispanic end of the spectrum can mean losses in the Hispanic end, Marin and Gamba propose that gains can be made on both domains during the acculturation process. Given that gains can be made on both domains, Hispanic individuals could maintain behaviors on the Hispanic domain and gain behaviors on the non-Hispanic domain. The dynamic process, the bidimensional process approach to acculturation, will be used for this study as it recognizes Hispanic individuals can make gains on both the Hispanic and non-Hispanic domain. Degree of acculturation seems to be related to body image attitudes (Abrams, Allen, & Gray, 1993; Franko & Herrera, 1997; Pumariega, 1986). Two studies in particular illustrate this point. In a review of research on etiology of eating disorders, Striegel-Moore and Cachelin (2001) described acculturation and discrimination as  6 potential risk factors for the development of eating disorders. Acculturation and discrimination are unique to minority cultures and need to be considered when assessing risk for eating disorders in minority cultures. Next, Franko and Herrera (1997) compared body image in Guatemalan-American and White women. Twenty- eight Guatemalan-American women and 29 White women who were recruited from a university in the Northeastern United States participated in this study. They were given the Eating Disorders Inventory-2 (Garner, 1991), the Multidimensional Body- Self Relations Questionnaire (Brown, et al., 1990), and the Culture Questionnaire (Pumariega, 1996). In addition, they were given a demographic measure that included questions about the participants’ height and weight. Their results indicated the more acculturated the Guatemalan-American women were to the American culture, the greater body dissatisfaction they showed. Taken together, these findings may explain the change in research results over the years of studies comparing Hispanic females to White females where Hispanic and White females have shown similar levels of body dissatisfaction. That is, Hispanic females who become acculturated to the dominant American culture may have attitudes and beliefs more similar to White females than to Hispanic females who have attitudes and beliefs that are aligned with traditional Hispanic culture. After finding no difference in level of body satisfaction across ethnicities, Shaw et al. (2004) called for future research to include potentially important variables that could affect the relationship between ethnicity and eating disorders and risk  7 factors. The authors proposed that acculturation to the dominant American culture may be a more important predictor of eating disturbances than specific ethnicity. Cachelin, Rebeck, Chung, and Pelayo (2002) proposed age, Body Mass Index (BMI) and education level should be controlled for when examining body image among ethnic groups. The researchers examined body image and body size preference in White, Asian, Black, and Hispanic men and women. Age, BMI, and education level were controlled for in the statistical analysis when examining differences in body image among the ethnic groups. Before controlling for age, BMI, and education level, significant race differences were found for level of body dissatisfaction. After controlling for age, BMI, and education level, the authors found most ethnic difference in body image disappeared; the only difference was that Asian women reported less body dissatisfaction than White, Black, and Hispanic women. Contrary to previously discussed studies (Franko & Herrera, 1997; McComb & Clopton, 2002), no differences in level of body satisfaction were found in Black, White, and Hispanic women. The authors suggest ethnic differences do exist but age, BMI and education level are more powerful contributors to body image perceptions. Future research recommendations include longitudinal studies of children from different ethnic groups and controlling for age, BMI, and education level. Body Image Evaluation, Investment, and Affect Cash (1994a) proposed there are three facets of body image attitudes that are distinct and should be examined separately: evaluation, investment, and affect. Recall that body image evaluation refers to the satisfaction-dissatisfaction with physical