ETHICS IN IMMERSIVE GAMEWORLDS - Open Collections (PDF)

ETHICS IN IMMERSIVE GAMEWORLDS: PERSONAL GROWTH AND SOCIAL CHANGE by Natasha Boskic BA, University of Novi Sad, 1986 BEd, University of British Columbia, 2004 MDE, Athabasca University, 2003 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Language and Literacy Education) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) September 2011 © Natasha Boskic, 2011  ii Abstract This research was conducted to gain a deeper understanding of ethical issues confronting Alternative Reality Game (ARG) players who, when faced in a gameworld with actual- life problems, must collectively reach solutions which are expressed through narratives and critical literacy. The aim of this research was to draw on the experience of game players engaging in the ARG, “Urgent Evoke,” in order to respond to the following research questions: 1) What kinds of moral functioning are evident in human play in immersive gameworlds? 2) How can players and educators who use these spaces grow as individuals in their ethical sensibilities? The method of analysis for this study was virtual ethnography, including pre- and post- game surveys and interviews and the analysis of artifacts created during the game. The four-component model of moral functioning (Narvaez & Lapsley, 2005) was used as a framework for analysis with the following main categories: judgment, sensitivity, motivation, and action. However, because Narvaez and Lapsley’s division in skills and sub-skills appeared too inflexible for broad understanding of the behaviours under review, additional coding was applied. Study results suggest that ARGs motivate players to contribute to the game, and that through such contribution participants may arrive at understandings that encourage them to make shanges in their behaviours outside of the gameworld. In the four component areas, the ARG offered fertile space for growth and learning through discussion, negotiations, and reflection. The study suggests that ARGs can be used successfully to encourage sensitivity to questions of ethics.  iii Preface An earlier version of the introduction of the thesis has been published. Boskic, N., Dobson, T., & Rusnak, P. (2008). Play it seriously; Juxtaposing AR and RW crisis. Proceeding of the 2nd European Conference on Games Based Learning. Barcelona, Spain, October 2008. The section included in this thesis comprises my own contribution to the paper. A version of Chapter 2 is published in Boskic, N. (2011) Immersive gameworlds for worldwide change. In S. Hirtz, & K. Kelly (Eds), Education for a Digital World 2.0: Innovations in Education. Crown Publications. This research required approval from the UBC Research Ethics Board, which was obtained on March 8, 2010. The Certificate number is H10-00154.  iv Table of Contents Abstract..........................................................................................................................................................ii Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................iv List of Tables............................................................................................................................................. vii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................................x Dedication ....................................................................................................................................................xi Chapter 1: Introduction...........................................................................................................................1 1.1 The Beginning of a Journey............................................................................................................1 1.2 Moving Away from WWO................................................................................................................9 Chapter 2: History of Play ...................................................................................................................12 2.1 Approaches to the Study of Play ...............................................................................................12 2.2 Categorization of Play....................................................................................................................19 2.3 Play Elements....................................................................................................................................22 2.4 Play Functions...................................................................................................................................26 2.5 Contemporary Western Settings: Games Manifestations ..............................................34 2.6 Digital Environments.....................................................................................................................36 2.7 Game Genres......................................................................................................................................43 2.8 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................51 Chapter 3: Games for Learning in Digital Environments.......................................................53 3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................53 3.2 Games in Education: A Different Classroom........................................................................53 3.3 Designing for Learning..................................................................................................................55 3.4 Learning by Doing...........................................................................................................................65 3.5 Learning by Storytelling: Narratives and Games...............................................................69  v 3.6 Games for Social Change...............................................................................................................74 3.7 Ethics in Gameworlds....................................................................................................................77 3.8 All the Wrong Learning: Areas of Concern...........................................................................93 3.9 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................96 Chapter 4: Virtual Ethnography…………………………………………………………………………..98 4.1 Research in Digital Environments............................................................................................98 4.2 Research Design............................................................................................................................ 100 4.3 Observer vs. Participant ............................................................................................................ 105 4.4 Data Collection............................................................................................................................... 108 4.5 Identity.............................................................................................................................................. 111 4.6 Research Instruments ................................................................................................................ 114 4.7 Data Analysis.................................................................................................................................. 115 4.8 Results............................................................................................................................................... 118 4.9 Privacy and Copyright................................................................................................................ 119 4.10 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 120 Chapter 5: Ethics in Immersive Gameworlds: A Study of "Urgent Evoke"……...…… 122 5.1 Research Design............................................................................................................................ 122 5.2 Participants..................................................................................................................................... 132 5.3 Procedure: Data Collection....................................................................................................... 144 5.4 Data Analysis.................................................................................................................................. 151 5.5 Results............................................................................................................................................... 159 Chapter 6: Discussion......................................................................................................................... 225 6.1 Behaviour in Actual Life and Morality of Actions........................................................... 225 6.2 Supporting and Understanding Others............................................................................... 230 6.3 Becoming a Leader....................................................................................................................... 232 6.4 Being a Good Citizen, Choosing Good Values – Illegitimate Appropriation of Text ...................................................................................................................................................................... 236  vi 6.5 What is Moral? – Freedom of Speech................................................................................... 242 7. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................... 248 7.1 Limitations of the Study and Recommendations for Further Research ............... 250 7.2 Implications for Education....................................................................................................... 251 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………….257 Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..298 Appendix A: Call for Participation -­‐ Poster ………………………………………………………. 298 Appendix B: Call for Participation – Letter............................................................................... 300 Appendix C: Consent Form .............................................................................................................. 301 Appendix D: Pre-­‐game Survey Questions.................................................................................. 304 Appendix E: Pre-­‐game Semi-­‐structured Interview Questions ......................................... 308 Appendix F: Post-­‐game Survey Questions ................................................................................ 309 Appendix G: Exit Interview Semi-­‐structured Questions..................................................... 312 Appendix H: Master Code List ........................................................................................................ 313 Appendix I: Full Code Frequency Reports................................................................................. 332  vii List of Tables Table 1 Categorization of games ......................................................................................................47 Table 2 Participants' demographic data.................................................................................... 135 Table 3 Coding system: Categories and subcategories........................................................ 158 Table 4 Question #16: Losing track of time.............................................................................. 161 Table 5 Question #17: How real is a gameworld?................................................................ 162 Table 6 Coding system: Pre-­‐game interview ........................................................................... 164 Table 7 Moral functioning -­‐ Pre-­‐game interview (code frequency)............................... 171 Table 8 Coding system: Blog postings......................................................................................... 176 Table 9 Moral functioning -­‐ Blog postings (code frequency)............................................ 178 Table 10 Coding system: Comments............................................................................................ 186 Table 11 Time spent on playing "Urgent Evoke" ................................................................... 191 Table 12 Expectations about interaction with other players ........................................... 196 Table 13 Artistic/creative choices................................................................................................ 198 Table 14 Effects of "Urgent Evoke" on the research participants................................... 200 Table 15 Expression of frustration or discomfort................................................................. 201 Table 16 Increased knowledge and understanding.............................................................. 203 Table 17 Learning about challenging issues ............................................................................ 204 Table 18 Coding system: Exit interview..................................................................................... 206 Table 19 Moral functioning -­‐ Exit interview (code frequency)........................................ 224 Table 20 Moral Functioning -­‐ All five data sets....................................................................... 229 Table 21 Master code list with categories, description and example ........................... 313 Table 22 Pre-­‐game interview (code frequency)..................................................................... 332 Table 23 Blog postings (code frequency).................................................................................. 334 Table 24 Comments (code frequency)........................................................................................ 336 Table 25 Image and video postings (code frequency)......................................................... 337  viii Table 26 Exit interview (code frequency)................................................................................. 338  ix List of Figures Figure 1 A mechanic ..............................................................................................................................14 Figure 2 Baptism .....................................................................................................................................20 Figure 3 Participating in children's play.......................................................................................28 Figure 4 Dancers......................................................................................................................................34 Figure 5 A virtual world.......................................................................................................................41 Figure 6 An ode to gaming ..................................................................................................................44 Figure 7 Gradual "unlocking " of the missions........................................................................ 127 Figure 8 All missions revealed in the final week.................................................................... 128 Figure 9 "Urgent Evoke" quests..................................................................................................... 130 Figure 10 Profile page in "Urgent Evoke".................................................................................. 136 Figure 11 HyperResearch interface .............................................................................................. 153 Figure 12 Question #9: Familiarity with tools and applications..................................... 160 Figure 13 Expectations from "Urgent Evoke".......................................................................... 163 Figure 14 Ways of interacting with others ............................................................................... 193 Figure 15 The difference in focus of moral functioning at different stages in the game ............................................................................................................................................................ 225 Figure 16 Moral functioning themes ........................................................................................... 228 Figure 17 "Urgent Evoke" -­‐ First page of mission 3.............................................................. 245 Figure 18 "Invoke" -­‐ First page of mission 3............................................................................ 246  x Acknowledgements Writing this thesis would not have been possible without the support of the different people who have assisted me through this journey. I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Teresa Dobson, for her tremendous support, encouragement and wisdom, and committee members Dr. Marlene Asselin and Dr. Carl Leggo for their patience, invaluable feedback, and generously provided resources. Thanks to my research participants who never said “no” to follow-up questioning and the extra time required for reflection and conversation. Special thanks to Garry Fletcher and Genevive Gagne-Hawes for their proofreading and editing. In addition, it is with deep sense of gratitude that I acknowledge the opportunities offered by the Language and Literacy Department and the Faculty of Education at UBC. I offer my regards to all my friends who have shown confidence in me and my work, and who have supported me both professionally and personally. Finally, I am grateful to my parents, who taught me that life is a constant process of learning and play. The research study was funded as follows: Special UBC Graduate Scholarship (2007), Digital Literacy Fellowship (2007-2008) and a three-year Joseph-Armand Canada Graduate Scholarship – Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) (May 2008-2011).  xi Dedication For my children, Borislav and Nevena  1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 The Beginning of a Journey My interest in this research question began with my children, specifically my son, who spent hours playing video games. Not a gamer myself, I could not understand his passion and commitment to something he “should have outgrown a long time ago.” As an educator interested in literature, I was intrigued when he told me that “World of Warcraft” was not about shooting people or gaining points, but about getting to know other players, discovering or creating your own stories, and finding yourself forced to work with others to accomplish tasks you could not complete alone. The stereotype of the solitary, alienated computer game player was challenged by what I heard: relationships, narratives, collaboration. A number of questions about motivation, learning through doing, and the emergence of specific skills, competencies, and abilities that might develop through such engagement suggested themselves. Subsequently, I talked to a colleague who described an Alternate Reality Game, “World Without Oil” (WWO), in passionate terms. Her remarks sparked my interest and led me to enter the world of ARGs. 1.1.1 World Without Oil Jane McGonigal’s game, “World Without Oil” (WWO), ended in June 2007, but both game scenarios and players’ contributions were still available on the website. I found four statements on the home page describing the game promising. They read: • A massively collaborative imagining of the first 32 weeks of a global oil crisis.  2 • An alternate reality chronicled online in 1,500 personal blog entries, videos, voicemails and images. • A serious game for the public good. • A future-changing experience. (WWO, 2007) The motto of the game was “Play it – before you live it.” First, I watched a video clip compiling participant reflections on their experiences with comments by game creators and publicists. The speakers in this video emphasized the game’s global reach and impact, remarking that participants “from all corners of the world” contributed (Aguilar, 2007). The event at the centre of the game was an imagined global oil crisis in a possible future. According to game developer Ken Eklund (2007), the goal of WWO was to make people think about the “common future” and deal with possible real consequences of living in an unsustainable fashion. The Participant Architect, Jane McGonigal (2007), stated that players used collective wisdom to look for solutions which they might then use to change their practices outside of the gameworld. She claimed the game was unique because, as a direct result of their experiences, “gamers” engaged in actual life actions for change. Reflecting on the results of the game, the designers claimed, “more than merely raising awareness, WWO made the issues real, and this in turn led to real engagement and real change in people’s lives” (McGonigal, 2007). The game was described as “a serious game for the public good,” a life-learning lesson that was nevertheless “compellingly fun” (Olsen, 2007). The creators of this scenario called the game global; it boasted participants from 12 countries around the world.  3 The game lasted 32 days, each day representing a week. The imagined oil crisis thus ended in a month. As someone who had actually lived through an oil crisis, one of the first questions that occurred to me was: how could an oil crisis experienced virtually in 32 days recreate the intensity of a scenario that would literally last for years? In an effort to understand more about “World Without Oil,” I read newspaper reports on the game, focusing on quotes that discussed narratives and storytelling, and on posted scenarios and personal blog contributions. Participants were invited to tell their own stories, to contribute though keeping a blog, and to communicate with one another using email and postings. They constructed narratives, interacted, and engaged in collaborative problem-solving. Storytelling is frequently perceived as an essential human practice (Fulford, 1999). People tell stories in order to make meaning out of life and the world around them, to learn from the experiences of others, and to teach. Telling a story is more than an imaginative exercise. Consciously or subconsciously, people explain and justify their experiences through narrative (Richardson, 1997). They speak of the present or future, but they are actually viewing the past and building upon it. I was curious to tap into gamers’ personal narratives, to see how stories emerged from the participants’ imaginations and evolved over the 32-day period. In due course I turned to the blogs related to WWO, starting with “miawithoutoil.” This blog was “a live journal of Mia, a young girl in Bristol, England, writing as oil prices soar and society creaks under the strain” (miawitoutoil, 2007). I read the first post. Descriptions of rising prices,  4 soaring food costs, and crowded buses tangled with my own memories. The more I read, the more familiar it sounded. This was not a fiction; this was my past. My memories are vivid. At the beginning of the 1990s I lived in Serbia. The country was experiencing high inflation, the economy was in crisis, fuel was scarce and precious, and every day seemed worse than the one before. At the same time, I faced a personal tragedy: I lost my husband in a car accident and was left alone, struggling to raise a two- year-old boy and a baby girl. In the inflationary turmoil it was essential to convert dinars into German Deutsche Marks (DM) the moment you got them, before they slid even further in value. This meant clandestine deals with illegal currency traders who were known to rob and kill clients in dark lanes for a better return than exchanging their money. My mother, then in her 50s and retired, made these exchanges with three salaries in her hands (my father’s, my brother’s, and my own). She told stories of how she used her wits to escape danger and secure money to buy food for her children and grandchildren. Then, we laughed. Now, I shiver in contemplating the real danger she faced in those moments. We relied on her for our existence. To me WWO was neither a game nor an alternate reality. It was my reality, and I found it painful to think about those times. Reluctant to re-live them, my level of enthusiasm for the game dropped considerably. My reading became erratic; often posts brought back familiar feelings of indignation, anguish, helplessness, and humiliation. Skipping to the next blog, “Everything Falls Apart” (fallingintosin, 2007), I was immediately struck by its design: a pink page with a kitten’s head in the top right corner. How could someone