Exploring Kinaesthetic and Body Self-Awareness in (PDF)

Exploring Kinaesthetic and Body Self-Awareness in Professional Musicians Annamaria Minafra Institute of Education, University College London Submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Music Education  ����������������������������������������������������������������������� �� ����� ��������������������� �������������������������������� ������������������������ ����������������� ��� �������� ����������������������������������������������������� ������� �� �� ����� ��������� ������������������ ������� �������������� ��  3 Acknowledgements I am especially grateful to Professor Susan Hallam for her unfailing advice and invaluable support with which she has guided me during this research project. I am very grateful to Dr. Lynne Rogers who provided helpful feedback and support on the last stage of my work. I would like to thank all of the musicians who collaboratively participated to this research. Sincere thanks also to all of my friends who shared and supported my ideas. Finally, a special thanks to my husband who always encouraged me all during this journey.  4 Abstract This research aimed to explore whether developing movement awareness in the playing of professional musicians could improve performance and assist in reducing tension. The issue was studied adopting a neurophenomenological perspective (Varela, 1996) which combines the traditions of continental phenomenology and neuroscientific studies related to cognitive processes. Musicians are often not aware of the importance of their body movements or gestures in playing (Holgersen, 2010). This research investigated whether movement awareness could be developed and if so what impact it would have on performance. Qualitative data were collected by applying phenomenological First-person mediator methods through semi-structured interviews, observation, and audiovisual materials. A range of professional instrumentalists participated. A quasi-repeated qualitative measurement research design was adopted. The musicians were asked to perform an easy, slow piece of music, which they had previously chosen, from memory three times. The first time the piece was performed with no intervention. In the first intervention they were asked to mentally rehearse the piece before playing it again, and in the second, they were asked to simulate the movements of playing without their instrument, before performing. The activities and performances were video recorded. The data were analysed in terms of verbal and non-verbal responses during the interviews and following performance. The performances were analysed by a panel of five experienced musicians and comparisons made in relation to the way the participants responded to the interventions. The findings showed that all of the musicians were affected by the simulation which aroused a range of feelings. The simulation seemed to generate kinaesthetic and sensory-motor feedback assisting the musicians in shaping their thoughts and developing body self-awareness even when they expressed negative feelings. The panellists noted a reduction in anxiety particularly following the third performance and an increase in concentration, musical communication, accuracy and fluidity of gestures.  5 Impact statement The findings of this research aim to contribute to the field of music education through a combination of theory with practice. The research based on the body- mind relationship was designed to assist in enhancing musicians’ well-being increasing their concentration when playing through the development of body self-awareness. The findings might be applied to professional musicians but also in the context of instrumental music tuition. The insights gathered from the findings may be relevant to developing self-reflection and the use of simulation when children begin to learn to play an instrument. Children may be guided to create a positive relationship with their instrument reducing tension and anxiety from the beginning of their musical journey. The effects of body self-awareness may also be explored in other educational areas through the application of kinaesthetic movement. This approach might also further multi-disciplinary research on investigating movement in playing and promote innovative future practice in music tuition through the interaction between first-and third-person data. Selected findings from the research have been presented at several international and interdisciplinary conferences such as International Society for Music Education (ISME) World Conferences, Research In Music Education (RIME), European Association for Music in School (EAS), Music and Sonic Art (MuSA), Toward a Science of Consciousness (TSC), Movement Computing (MOCO). Sections of findings have been published in the following articles (http://www.coriscoedizioni.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Immagine-e-pensiero- Bilanci-nellescienze-cognitive-attuali.pdf; https://doi.org/10.1145/3212721.3212875). The dissemination process will continue. Within the academic community, dissemination of outputs is planned through participating in future international conferences and publishing journal articles exploring aspects of the research. In addition, a book which investigates various topic of the research is planned. Presentations of the research in music conservatoires and universities are also contemplated to disseminate the findings and promote discussion. Beyond the academic community, practical application of the findings will be pursued through workshops designed for professional musicians and instrumental music teachers.  6  7 TABLES of CONTENTS Acknowledgements p. 3 Abstract p. 4 Impact statement p. 5 SECTION 1 p. 21 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY p. 23 1.1 Introduction p. 23 1.1.1 Biographical introduction and rationale p. 23 1.2 Theoretical background p. 26 1.3 Research questions and study design overview p. 27 1.4 Study design overview p. 28 1.5 Preview of the thesis p. 29 CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW p. 31 2.1 Introduction p. 31 2.2 Consciousness and the body-mind problem p. 31 2.3 Intersubjectivity and empath p. 35 2.4. Neurophenomenology, enaction, and movement p. 37 2.5 From what to how in the learning process p. 43 2.5.1 Sensations and Perceptions p. 44 2.5.2 Kinaesthesia and Proprioception p. 46 2.6 Nonverbal communication components in music p. 49 2.6.1 Facial behavior p. 50 2.6.2 Eye behavior p. 51 2.6.3 Body movements p. 51 2.6.4 Gestures and musical gestures p. 52 2.7 Summary of the theoretical framework p. 54 CHAPTER 3- EPISTEMOLOGICAL APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY p. 56 3.1 Introduction p. 56 3.2 Epistemological framework p. 56 3.3 Research Methodology p. 58 3.4 Research methods p. 62 3.4.1 Setting p. 64 3.5 Pilot p. 65 3.6 Participants and timeline p. 66 3.7 Ethical Issues p. 67 3.8 Procedure p. 70 3.8.1 Procedure 1 p. 70 3.8.2 Procedure 2 p. 74 3.8.3 Procedure 3 p. 74 3.9 Procedures for data analysis and introductory reflections p. 75 3.9.1 Video analysis procedure p. 75 3.9.2 Phases of analysis p. 76 3.9.3 Procedure for defining themes p. 78 3.10 Panel of experts and evaluation procedure p. 79 3.10.1 Evaluation sheet p. 80 3.11 Summary p. 82 SECTION 2 p. 84 CHAPTER 4- MUSICIANS’ REACTION PRIOR TO TASK 1 p. 85 4.1 Introduction p. 85 4.2 Influence of the research setting: verbal reactions prior to playing p. 86 4.3 State anxiety p. 86  8 4.3.1 Taking time before playing p. 87 4.3.2 Needing Reassurance p. 87 4.3.3 Reassurance request p. 88 Asking permission p. 89 Reassurance from interviewer p. 91 4.3.4 Self-reassurance p. 91 Repeating instructions for completing the task p. 92 Speaking about the piece of music p. 93 Procrastination p. 94 Contradiction p. 96 Self-assessing p. 96 4.3.5 Summary of findings on reassurance p. 97 4.4. Self-reflection p. 97 4.5. Influence of the setting: nonverbal interaction before playing p. 97 4.6. Showing “Nonverbal Anxiety” p. 98 4.6.1 Embarrassment p. 99 4.6.2 Kinesic ensemble: Eye behaviour p. 100 Looking into space p. 100 Looking at the interviewer p. 102 Looking at the camera p. 103 Closed eyes p. 103 4.6.3 Gestures p. 104 Anticipatory gestures p. 104 Iconic gestures p. 105 4.6.4 Body movements p. 106 4.6.5 Facial behaviour p. 108 4.6.6 Smiling p. 109 Embarrassed smile p. 110 Affiliation smile p. 111 4.6.7 Self-adaptors: self-touching and object manipulation p. 111 4.6.8 Silence p. 113 4.7 Nonverbal Self-reflection p. 115 4.7.1 Kinesic ensemble: eye behaviour p. 115 4.7.2 Body movement p. 116 4.7.3 Smiling p. 116 4.7.4 Silence p. 116 4.8 Summary of the chapter findings p. 116 CHAPTER 5- MUSICIANS’ NONVERBAL REACTIONS AFTER COMPLETING TASK 1 p. 118 5.1 Introduction p. 118 5.2 Nonverbal behaviour after completing Task 1 p. 119 5.3 Nonverbal communication: state anxiety p. 119 5.3.1 Anxiety/embarrassment through unconscious cues p. 119 5.3.2 Kinesic ensemble: Eye behaviour p. 120 Looking into space p. 120 Looking at the interviewer p. 122 Looking at the camera p. 123 Closing eyes p. 123 5.3.3 Kinesic ensemble: gestures p. 124 Anticipatory gestures p. 125 Iconic gestures p. 126 Beats p. 126 5.3.4 Body movements p. 127 5.3.5 Facial behaviour p. 131  9 5.3.6 Smiling p. 132 5.3.7 Silence p. 134 5.3.8 Self-adaptors: self-touching and object manipulation p. 136 5.4 Awareness of relaxation p. 137 5.4.1 Semiconscious movements p. 138 Kinaesthetic movements p. 138 Simulated movements p. 139 5.5 Summary of the chapter nonverbal findings p. 140 CHAPTER 6- MUSICIANS’ VERBAL INFORMATION AFTER COMPLETING TASK 1 p. 141 6.1 Introduction p. 141 6.2 Verbal information after playing p. 142 6.3 State anxiety p. 142 6.3.1 Awareness of being anxious or tense p. 143 6.3.2 Difficulties in reflecting and verbalizing body feelings p. 146 Feeling tense p. 146 6.3.3 Self-protection strategies p. 149 Declaring relaxation but concealing anxiety p. 149 Declaring unawareness p. 152 Self-justification and Self-criticism p. 153 Intellectualisation and misunderstood responses p. 157 Speaking about the music or the instrument p. 159 6.4 Being relaxed p. 160 Kinaesthetic thought p. 160 Speaking about the piece of music p. 162 6.5 Summary of the chapter related to verbal findings p. 162 SECTION 3 p. 163 CHAPTER 7- MUSICIANS’ VERBAL AND NONVERBAL REACTIONS PRIOR TO TASK 2 p. 164 7.1 Introduction p. 164 7.2 The research context and verbal reactions prior to starting Task 2 p. 165 7.3 Uncertainty p. 167 7.3.1 Taking time before starting mental rehearsal p. 167 7.3.2 Needing reassurance p. 168 7.3.3 Self-reassurance reactions p. 168 Self-explaining of the task instructions p. 169 Repeating instructions for completing the task p. 171 Need to communicate the starting of mental rehearsal p. 171 7.3.4 Reassurance request p. 172 Asking for confirmation or explanation p. 172 Asking permission p. 173 7.3.5 Defensive reactions p. 174 Misunderstanding task instructions p. 174 Being reluctant to perform the task p. 175 7.4 Self-reflection p. 176 7.4.1 Taking time p. 176 7.4.2 Explaining the task to self p. 177 7.5 Introduction to musicians’ nonverbal behaviour analysis prior to Task 2 p. 177 7.6 Nonverbal communication prior to Task 2 p. 178 7.6.1 Kinesic ensemble p. 179 7.6.2 Eye behaviour p. 179 Looking into space p. 179  10 Looking at the interviewer p. 180 Looking at the camera p. 181 Closing eyes p. 181 7.6.3 Gestures p. 181 Anticipatory gestures p. 182 Iconic gestures p. 182 Beats p. 183 7.6.4 Body movement and posture p. 183 7.6.5 Facial behaviour p. 184 7.6.6 Smiling p. 185 7.6.7 Silence p. 186 7.6.8 Self-adaptors p. 187 7.6.9 Semiconscious movements p. 188 Kinaesthetic movements p. 188 Simulated movements p. 188 7.7 Summary of the chapter p. 189 CHAPTER 8- MUSICIANS’ REACTIONS DURING MENTAL REHEARSAL AND ITS EFFECTS ON BODY SELF-AWARENESS p. 190 8.1 Introduction p. 190 8.2 Musicians’ behaviour during mental rehearsal p. 191 8.3 Showing relaxation p. 192 8.3.1 Kinesic ensemble p. 193 8.4 Showing tension/uncertainty p. 193 8.5 Musicians’ concentration before performing p. 194 8.6 Verbal information after playing Task 2 p. 194 8.7 Awareness p. 195 8.7.1 Taking time through silence and/or speech latency p. 196 8.7.2 Performance awareness p. 196 Involved in music p. 197 Sound quality p. 198 Following the flow of music p. 199 Better the 2nd time p. 200 Being unsure about differences p. 201 8.7.3 Body perception p. 201 Breathing p. 202 Body presence/concentration p. 203 Relaxation p. 204 8.7.4 Mental rehearsal effect p. 205 8.8 Self-justification/Fear of being judged p. 206 8.9 Perceiving mental rehearsal as irrelevant p. 207 Avoiding answering, Disagree with the, Worst/ Same the 2nd Time p. 207 8.10 Summary of the chapter p. 208 CHAPTER 9- THE NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION OF THE MUSICIANS MANIFESTED AFTER COMPLETING TASK 2 p. 209 9.1 Introduction p. 209 9.2 Nonverbal behaviour after completing Task 2 p. 210 9.3 Showing self-reflection p. 210 9.3.1 Kinesic ensemble combined with other nonverbal language p. 211 9.3.2 Kinesic ensemble: eye movement combined with other nonverbal signal p. 211 Looking into space p. 211 Looking at some fixed point in space, silence, closing eyes, and semiconscious movements p. 213  11 Looking at the interviewer, silence, body movements, and other nonverbal signals p. 214 Looking at the camera, smiling, and self-adaptors p. 215 9.3.3 Kinesic ensemble: gestures and other cues p. 216 Anticipatory gestures and semiconscious movements p. 216 Iconic gestures p. 218 Beats p. 218 9.3.4 Body movements p. 219 9.3.5 Facial behaviour p. 222 9.3.6 Smiling p. 223 9.3.7 Silence p. 224 9.3.8 Self-adaptors p. 225 9.3.9 Semiconscious movements p. 226 Kinaesthetic movements p. 227 Simulated movements p. 228 9.4 Uneasiness/embarrassment p. 228 9.4.1 Looking into space down and/or around, silence, body movements, and self-adaptors p. 229 9.5 Summary of the chapter p. 229 SECTION 4 p. 231 CHAPTER 10- MUSICIANS’ VERBAL AND NONVERBAL RESPONSES PRIOR TO TASK 3 p. 232 10.1 Introduction p. 232 10.2 The research context and verbal reactions prior to starting Task 3 p. 234 10.3 Uncertainty and State anxiety p. 235 10.3.1 Needing reassurance p. 236 10.3.2 Self-reassurance reactions p. 236 Repeating the instructions for completing the task p. 237 Explaining the task to self p. 237 Need to communicate the starting of the playing simulation p. 239 10.3.3 Reassurance request p. 240 10.3.4 Asking for confirmation or explanation about the task p. 240 Asking permission p. 241 Expressing difficulty of the task p. 242 10.3.5 Defensive reactions p. 243 Being reluctant to perform the task p. 243 Manifesting embarrassment about simulation p. 244 10.4 Self-reflection p. 245 10.5 Introduction to musicians’ nonverbal communication analysis prior to Task 3 p. 245 10.6 State anxiety, embarrassment, and uncertainty p. 247 10.6.1 Kinesic ensemble p. 247 10.6.2 Eye behaviour p. 247 Looking into space p. 247 Looking at the interviewer p. 248 Looking at the camera p. 249 Closing eyes p. 249 10.6.3 Gestures p. 250 Anticipatory gestures p. 250 Iconic gestures p. 250 10.6.4 Body movements p. 251 10.6.5 Facial behaviour p. 251 10.6.6 Smiling p. 253 10.6.7 Silence p. 254  12 10.6.8 Self-adaptors p. 254 10.7 Self-reflection p. 256 10.7.1 Semiconscious/ conscious movements p. 256 Kinaesthetic movements p. 256 Simulated movements p. 257 10.8 Summary of the chapter p. 258 CHAPTER 11- THE NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION OF THE MUSICIANS MANIFESTED DURING TASK 3 p. 259 11.1 Introduction p. 259 11.2 Musicians’ behaviour during the simulation of playing p. 261 11.3 Attitude towards the task p. 261 11.4 Musicians’ concentration before and during the simulation of playing p. 262 11.5 Kinesic ensemble during the simulation of playing p. 263 11.5.1 Eye behaviour p. 263 Looking at the “imaginary instrument” p. 263 Looking into space p. 264 Closing eyes p. 265 Looking at the camera p. 265 11.5.2 Body and expressive bodily movements, and muscle tone p. 266 Breathing before starting simulation p. 266 Expressive bodily movements p. 267 Automatization of bodily expressive movements p. 269 Exploration of movements p. 270 Bodily expressive movements for self-comforting p. 271 Muscle tone p. 271 11.5.3 Facial behaviour: Tense and relaxed expressions p. 272 11.5.4 Smiling p. 273 11.6 The simulation effect during playing p. 273 11.7 Musicians’ concentration before and during the third performance p. 274 11.7.1 Breathing before starting the third performance p. 274 11.7.2 Expressive bodily movements p. 275 Automatization of bodily expressive movements p. 275 Exploration of movements p. 277 Bodily expressive movements for self-comforting p. 278 11.8 Summary of the chapter p. 279 CHAPTER 12- MUSICIANS’ VERBAL RESPONSES AFTER UNDERTAKING TASK 3 p. 280 12.1 Introduction p. 280 12.2 Verbal information after undertaking Task 3 p. 282 12.3 Simulation effect p. 283 12.4 Awareness p. 284 12.4.1 Differences between performances p. 284 Physical experience p. 285 Kinaesthesia and sound connection p. 289 Slower tempo p. 291 Being unsure about differences between performances p. 291 Better p. 292 Worse p. 293 Involved in music p. 295 12.4.2 Body perception p. 295 Perceiving more body and movement awareness p. 296 Perceiving less or the same body and movement awareness p. 298 Relaxation/Tension p. 298  13 12.4.3 Showing surprise for the unusual practice: positive reaction p. 299 Showing positive surprised reactions p. 300 12.5 Rejecting the task. Showing surprise through dissenting reactions p. 301 12.5.1 Showing surprise through dissenting reactions p. 302 Dissenting reactions p. 302 Too much thinking p. 304 Missing physical contact with the instrument when producing sound p. 305 12.6 Summary of the chapter p. 306 CHAPTER 13- THE NONVERBAL REACTIONS OF THE MUSICIANS AFTER COMPLETING TASK 3 p. 307 13.1 Introduction p. 307 13.2 Nonverbal behaviour after completing Task 3 p. 308 13.3 Showing self-reflection surprise, and/or embarrassment p. 308 13.3.1 Kinesic ensemble combined with other nonverbal language p. 309 13.3.2 Kinesic ensemble: eye behaviour combined with other nonverbal signals p. 310 Looking into space p. 310 Looking at some fixed point in space combined with other cues p. 311 Looking at the interviewer and other nonverbal signals p. 312 Looking at the camera p. 313 Closing eyes and other cues p. 313 13.3.3 Kinesic ensemble: gestures and other cues p. 314 Anticipatory gestures p. 314 Iconic gestures p. 315 Beats p. 316 13.3.4 Body movements p. 316 13.3.5 Facial behaviour p. 319 13.3.6 Smiling p. 321 13.3.7 Silence p. 322 13.3.8 Self-adaptors p. 324 13.3.9 Semiconscious and conscious movements p. 325 Kinaesthesia p. 326 Simulated movements p. 327 13.4 Summary of the chapter p. 329 SECTION 5 p. 330 CHAPTER 14- THE EXPERT MUSICIANS’ EVALUATIONS OF PARTICIPANTS’ MUSICAL PERFORMANCES p. 331 14.1 Introduction p. 331 14.2 The selected musicians, the panel members, and assessment criteria p.331 14.2.1 The selected musicians p. 332 14.2.2 The panel p. 333 14.2.3 The parameters of evaluation p. 333 14.3 Anxiety p. 334 14.4 Concentration p. 336 14.5 Tempo p. 338 14.6 Dynamic contrasts p. 340 14.7 Musical communication p. 342 14.8 Intonation p. 344 14.9 Features of musical gestures p. 345 14.9.1 Expressive movements p. 345 14.9.2 Accuracy of gestures p. 347 14.9.3 Fluidity of gestures p. 349  14 14.10 Summary of the chapter p. 351 CHAPTER 15- DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS p. 352 15.1 Introduction p. 353 15.2 The “journey” of the introspective process toward body self-awareness p. 352 15.3 Starting the “introspective journey”. The first phenomenological reduction: musicians' body self-awareness through p. 354 15.3.1 Prior to perform Task 1 p. 354 15.3.2 After completing Task 1: verbalization process p. 355 15.4 The second phenomenological reduction: musicians’ self-reflection on the relationship between movement and performance assisted by mental rehearsal p. 357 15.4.1 Prior to perform Task 2 p. 357 15.4.2 During performing mental rehearsal p. 359 15.4.3 Musicians’ concentration before playing the piece the second time p. 360 15.4.4 After completing Task 2: verbalization process p. 361 15.5 The third phenomenological reduction: musicians’ self-reflection on the relationship between movement and performance assisted by simulating playing p. 363 15.5.1 Prior to perform Task 3 p. 364 15.5.2 During performing the simulation of playing p. 365 15.5.3 The simulation effect prior to and during the last performance p. 368 15.5.4 After completing Task 3: verbalization process p. 369 15.6 To what extent do interventions focusing on movement impact on performance? p. 374 15.7 Contribution to knowledge p. 376 15.7.1 The first-person mediator method p. 377 15.7.2 Kinaesthetic and simulated movements p. 378 15.7.3 Shifting from state anxiety and pre-reflective and body self-awareness to self-reflective and body self-awareness p. 378 15.7.4 The effect of mental rehearsal and the simualtion p. 379 15.7.5 “Thought in action” effect p. 381 15.7.6 The benefits of being self-aware in playing and practicing p. 382 15.7.7 Complementarity of mental rehearsal simualtion and verbalization p. 383 15.8 Limitations of the study p. 384 15.8.1 Researcher’s Subjectivity p. 384 15.8.2 Numbers and categories of musicians p. 384 15.8.3 Musicians’ introspective skills p. 385 15.8.4 Panellists’ evaluation p. 385 15.9 Generalisation p. 386 15.10 Implications p. 386 15.10.1 Theoretical implications p. 386 15.10.2 Methodological implications p. 387 15.10.3 Practical/training implications in music education p. 388 15.11 Further directions p. 389 REFERENCES p. 390  15 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Diagram of introspection process p. 59 Figure 2 The phases of the analysis p. 77 Figure 3. Themes emerging from the interviews prior to undertaking Task 1 p. 84 Figure 4. Themes of Nonverbal information before playing Task 1 p. 98 Figure 5. Themes of Nonverbal information after playing Task 1 p. 118 Figure 6. Themes emerging from the interviews after completing Task 1 p. 141 Figure 7. Themes emerging from the interviews before undertaking Task 2 p. 165 Figure 8. Themes of Nonverbal information before playing Task 2 p. 178 Figure 9. Themes emerging from behaviour observation during mental rehearsal before performing Task 2 p. 191 Figure 10. Themes emerging from the interviews after completing Task 2 p. 195 Figure 11. Themes of Nonverbal information after playing Task 2 p. 209 Figure 12. Themes related to verbal information emerging from the interviews before undertaking Task 3 p. 233 Figure 13. Themes of Nonverbal information before undertaking Task 3 p. 246 Figure 14. Themes of nonverbal behaviour during the performance of Task 3 p. 260 Figure 15. Themes emerging from the interviews after undertaking Task 3 p. 281 Figure 16. Themes of Nonverbal information after playing Task 3 p. 307 Figure 17. Anxiety evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 335 Figure 18. Concentration evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 337 Figure 19. Tempo evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 339 Figure 20. Dynamic contrasts evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 340 Figure 21. Musical communication evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 342 Figure 22. Intonation evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 344 Figure 23. Expressive movement evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 346 Figure 24. Accuracy of gestures evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 348 Figure 25. Fluidity of gestures evaluation during 1st, 2nd, & 3rd performance p. 349 APPENDIX 1: Semi-structured interview questions p. 413 APPENDIX 2: Sample of Ethics Informed Consent form p. 414 APPENDIX 3: Sample - Information Sheet for Participants p. 415 APPENDIX 4: Sample of Initial Coding of a Transcript -Task 1 p. 417 Legenda of Codes Symbols p. 418 APPENDIX 5A: List of Initial Codes and Clustering of Verbal Themes prior to Task 1 p. 419 APPENDIX 5B: List of Initial Codes and Clusters of Nonverbal Themes p. 420 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Chapter 3 –Tables p. 421 Table 3.1: Musicians’ nationality p. 421 Table 3.2: Musicians’ background and job p. 422 Table 3.3: Musicians’ gender p. 422 Table 3.4a, 3.4b: Evaluation sheet p. 423 3.4c: Evaluation sheet p. 423 Chapter 4 –Tables Table 4.1: Verbal reactions before playing 1st task: anxiety p. 425 Table 4.2: Nonverbal reactions before playing 1st task: anxiety/embarrassment p. 426 Table 4.3: Facial behaviour: eyebrows movements p. 427