G. Pitfield PhD thesis - White Rose eTheses Online (PDF)

1 An investigation into the prediction and promotion of specific self-esteem domains in adolescents By: Gabrielle Friese-Greene Pitfield A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Science Department of Psychology November 2019  2 Acknowledgments This research would not have been possible without Professor Rod Nicolson. I am especially indebted to him for giving me the opportunity to follow my passion and pursue researching for a PhD. I will always feel the deepest and heartfelt gratefulness for his guidance and inspiration. My sincerest gratitude to the dynamic and enlightening Professors Liz Milne and Paul Norman for their continuous support, motivation and immense knowledge. Their insightful comments and encouragement allowed me to broaden my research perspective and understand (to a small degree!) working with large datasets. Thank you both for your kindness and patience. In addition, I am extremely grateful for the invaluable help of Dr Jilly Martin. Without the precious support of these extraordinary academics and mentors, this PhD would not have transpired. I could not have imagined having better supervisors. I feel astonishingly privileged to have had three Professors guiding me through the emotional rollercoaster that is a PhD. It has been a very special time. I am also very grateful to University staff especially Josie, Jayne, James and the postgraduate team for their unfailing support and assistance. I would also like to thank the Heads and teachers at the schools which allowed me to spend time with their wonderful pupils – it was a pleasure and a privilege to be allowed into the worlds of these young people. In its totality, I dedicate this thesis to my family, past and present. My everlasting gratitude to my wonderful late parents who instilled in me the desire to learn and belief that through perseverance and determination your dreams can materialise. I know you have been beside me every step of my journey. To my fantastic husband, Spencer, and wonderful children, Francesca, Sebastian and Theodore I thank you for the love, interest and constant encouragement that has  3 nourished and sustained me through the writing of this thesis. To my fabulous sister, Kirsten, for her enduring support and for always believing in me and to my mother- in-law, Doreen, for her guidance. Thank you, I feel extremely blessed to have had such unending moral and emotional support in my life. It has been an honour to study at the University of Sheffield and I hope, that in some small way, that my research makes some positive impact on the lives of adolescents.  4 Abstract Self-esteem is a protective factor in both physical and mental health. Low self-esteem in adolescence is correlated with a wide spectrum of mental disorders both through internalising (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalising problems (e.g., aggression). This thesis adopted a positive psychology mixed methods approach and reports three studies investigating domain-specific self-esteem. The first study investigated the self-esteem of two samples of vulnerable adolescents through assessment and Life Story Interviews. Results demonstrated spiky domain specific profiles for both adolescents with dyslexia and adolescents disengaged in school and at risk for becoming ‘NEETS’ - Not in Education, Employment or Training. Narratives exposed shared themes that may potentially underpin discrepancies in self-esteem. The second study explored the promotion of self- esteem through a school-based intervention focussing on ‘positive emotions’ in the past (gratitude), present (recognition and use of character strengths) and future (hope). There was little evidence to suggest reliable improvement in academic, general, parental and social self-esteem domains, however some benefit was demonstrated in personal and global self-esteem, especially for females and those with low-level baseline scores. The third study identified predictors of self-esteem domains from an online questionnaire circulated to a large sample of typically developing adolescents. Regression analyses indicated strengths (behavioural, emotional, personal, contextual and character) variables in the final regression equation explained 61.0% of the variation in general self-esteem, 54.0% in personal self-esteem, 58.9% in academic self-esteem, 56.0% in parental self-esteem and 49.0% in social self-esteem. After controlling for demographics, a constellation of 18 strengths were identified with the strengths of “knowing yourself” and  5 “creativity” as universal predictors. This research highlights the importance of context, creativity and identity formation in self-esteem development and extends the literature on strengths predictors identified for potential inclusion in interventions targeting adolescents vulnerable for being at risk of low esteem.  6 Table of contents Acknowledgments...................................................................................................2 Abstract....................................................................................................................4 Table of contents .....................................................................................................6 List of Tables.........................................................................................................10 List of Figures........................................................................................................11 Declaration ............................................................................................................13 Chapter 1............................................................................................14 An exploration of self-esteem in adolescence from a mixed methods positive psychology perspective ........................................................14 1.1 Self-esteem in adolescence.........................................................................15 1.2 Cognitive advances in adolescence ............................................................16 1.3 Identity formation in adolescence and associations with self-esteem........18 1.4 Trajectory of global self-esteem across the lifespan ..................................21 1.5 Domain specific self-esteem.......................................................................25 1.6 Low self-esteem in adolescence .................................................................30 1.6.1 Adolescents with dyslexia...................................................................33 1.6.2 Adolescents at risk of becoming NEET..............................................41 1.7 Rationale underlying adoption of a mixed methodology ...........................49 1.7.1 A quantitative approach ......................................................................52 1.7.2 A qualitative approach ........................................................................54 1.8 Overview of thesis......................................................................................60 1.9 Summary.....................................................................................................62 2 Chapter 2 .....................................................................................64 Study 1 – A mixed methods exploration into the self-esteem of vulnerable adolescents.......................................................................64 2.1 Overview ....................................................................................................64 2.2 Qualitative studies with adolescents with dyslexia ....................................64 2.3 Qualitative studies with adolescents at risk of becoming NEET ...............67 2.4 Research Question......................................................................................71  7 2.5 Method........................................................................................................72 2.5.1 Participants..........................................................................................72 2.5.2 Materials..............................................................................................76 2.5.3 Procedure...........................................................................................108 2.6 Results for Sample 1- Adolescents with dyslexia ....................................110 2.6.1 Participant characteristics of Sample 1 from self-esteem and strengths scores ……………………………………………………………………...110 2.6.2 Results of the IPA of the Life Story Interviews with Sample 1........111 2.7 Results for Sample 2 - Adolescents at risk of becoming NEET...............127 2.7.1 Sample characteristics of Sample 2...................................................127 2.7.2 Results of the IPA of the Life Story Interviews with Sample 2........128 2.8 Overall discussion of themes generated and links between self-esteem profiles and narratives .........................................................................................153 2.8.1 Academic self-esteem .......................................................................155 2.8.2 General self-esteem...........................................................................160 2.8.3 Parental self-esteem ..........................................................................161 2.8.4 Social self-esteem..............................................................................161 2.8.5 Personal self-esteem..........................................................................162 2.8.6 Identification of emergent themes from Life Story Interviews.........163 2.9 Strengths and Limitations.........................................................................166 2.10 Conclusion................................................................................................168 3 Chapter 3 ...................................................................................174 Study 2 – An investigation into the impact of a positive emotion intervention on the self-esteem of vulnerable adolescents.............174 3.1 The importance of positive emotions in school-based interventions .......176 3.1.1 The effect of gratitude.......................................................................180 3.1.2 The effect of recognition and use of character strengths ..................183 3.1.3 The effect of hope .............................................................................189 3.2 Rationale underlying adoption and adaptation of the tripartite intervention ………………………………………………………………………….. 193 3.3 Research Question....................................................................................196 3.4 Method......................................................................................................196 3.4.1 Participants........................................................................................196 3.4.2 Design ...............................................................................................196  8 3.4.3 Materials............................................................................................197 3.4.4 Procedure...........................................................................................198 3.4.5 Development and details of the Positive Emotion Intervention .......199 3.4.6 Data Analysis ....................................................................................206 3.5 Results for Sample 1.................................................................................209 3.5.1 Visual analysis ..................................................................................209 3.5.2 Statistical analysis.............................................................................213 3.6 Results for Sample 2.................................................................................223 3.6.1 Visual analysis ..................................................................................223 3.6.2 Statistical analysis.............................................................................229 3.7 Summary of results...................................................................................240 3.8 Discussion.................................................................................................242 3.9 Strengths and Limitations.........................................................................247 3.10 Conclusion................................................................................................248 4 Chapter 4 ...................................................................................251 Study 3 – An exploration into the predictors of self-esteem domains in adolescents ...................................................................................251 4.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................251 4.2 Self-esteem predictors ..............................................................................251 4.3 Identification of potential predictors for further investigation.................254 4.4 Research Questions ..................................................................................257 4.5 Method......................................................................................................257 4.5.1 Participants........................................................................................257 4.5.2 Materials............................................................................................258 4.5.3 Procedure...........................................................................................271 4.6 Results ......................................................................................................272 4.6.1 Factor Analysis..................................................................................274 4.6.2 Factor structure of the self-esteem items ..........................................276 4.6.3 Associations between self-esteem domains ......................................281 4.6.4 Associations between demographic variables and self-esteem.........282 4.6.5 Correlations between strengths and self-esteem ...............................285 4.6.6 Inter-correlations between strengths ...............................................2877 4.6.7 Regression Analyses .........................................................................289 4.6.8 Additional analyses...........................................................................296  9 4.7 Discussion.................................................................................................299 4.8 Strengths and limitations..........................................................................303 4.9 Conclusions ..............................................................................................307 5 Chapter 5 ...................................................................................309 General Discussion ..........................................................................309 5.1 Research questions ...................................................................................310 5.2 Main Findings...........................................................................................310 5.2.1 Study 1 ..............................................................................................310 5.2.2 Study 2 ..............................................................................................312 5.2.3 Study 3 ..............................................................................................317 5.3 Overall findings........................................................................................320 5.4 Strengths and Limitations.........................................................................322 5.5 Future Implications...................................................................................327 5.6 Conclusion................................................................................................333 References ........................................................................................334 Appendices.......................................................................................416  10 List of Tables Table 2.1 Participant demographic characteristics of Sample 1…………………… Table 2.2 Participant demographic characteristics of Sample 2…………………… Table 2.3 Assessments and subscales used to measure self-esteem and strengths… Table 2.4 Interview topics addressed by the Life Story Interview……………….... Table 2.5 Descriptive statistics for the summed CFSEI-3 scales for Sample 1…. Table 2.6 Themes with subordinate themes for Sample 1………………………... Table 2.7 Descriptive statistics for the summed CFSEI-3 scales for Sample 2…... Table 2.8 Themes with subordinate themes for Sample 2………………………... Table 3.1 An outline of the positive emotion intervention sessions………...……. Table 3.2 Self-esteem scores of Sample 1 over time……………………………... Table 3.3 Effect sizes for changes in self-esteem scores of Sample 1……………… Table 3.4 TAU-U analysis of self-esteem scores of Sample 1…………………… Table 3.5 Number of participants in Sample 1 experiencing reliable change………. Table 3.6 Self-esteem scores of Sample 2 over time……………………………... Table 3.7 Effect sizes for changes in self-esteem scores of Sample 2……………… Table 3.8 TAU-U analysis of self-esteem scores of Sample 2…………………… Table 3.9 Number of participants in Sample 2 experiencing reliable change…….. Table 4.1 Item-total correlations of self-esteem items…………………………… Table 4.2 Factors and loadings of the selected items of the BERS-2 by scale...… Table 4.3 Factor loadings of the 96 item VIA for Youth………………………… Table 4.4 Factors and loadings of the seven relevant SAI scales………………… Table 4.5 Summary of demographic profile of participants……………………… Table 4.6 Summary of missing data……………………………………………… Table 4.7 Intercorrelations between the 27 self-esteem items……………………. Table 4.8 Communality values for the self-esteem items………………………... Table 4.9 Factor Loadings for the initial (unrotated) solution………………….... Table 4.10 Factor Loadings for the rotated factor solution………………………. Table 4.11 Descriptive statistics for the self-esteem domains from questionnaire. Table 4.12 Pearson’s correlations between the self-esteem domains……………... Table 4.13 Self-esteem scores by gender……………………………………….… Table 4.14 Self-esteem scores by ethnicity………………………………………. Table 4.15 Self-esteem scores by SEN…………………………………………… Table 4.16 Correlations between the measures of strength and self-esteem……... Table 4.17 Intercorrelations between the measured strengths…………...………... Table 4.18 Regression analysis for variables predicting academic self-esteem…... Table 4.19 Regression analysis for variables predicting general self-esteem……... Table 4.20 Regression analysis for variables predicting parental self-esteem…… Table 4.21 Regression analysis for variables predicting social self-esteem…...…. Table 4.22 Regression analysis for variables predicting personal self-esteem…... Table 4.23 Summary of regression analyses for variables predicting self-esteem... 73 74 78 91 110 112 127 129 204 210 213 214 216 225 229 231 233 260 263 265 267 273 274 275 277 279 280 281 282 283 284 284 286 288 290 291 293 294 295 297  11 List of Figures Figure 3.1 Academic self-esteem of participants D1, D2 and D4………………...... Figure 3.2 General self-esteem of participants D1, D2 and D4…………………… Figure 3.3 Parental self-esteem of participants D1, D2 and D4…………………… Figure 3.4 Social self-esteem of participants D1, D2 and D4……………………… Figure 3.5 Personal self-esteem of participants D1, D2 and D4…………………… Figure 3.6 Global self-esteem of participants D1, D2 and D4……………………… Figure 3.7a Change in academic self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………... Figure 3.7b Change in academic self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………......... Figure 3.7c Change in academic self-esteem from pre- to 12 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.8a Change in general self-esteem from pre- to immediate post - intervention…………………………………………………………………………. Figure 3.8b Change in general self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………….......... Figure 3.8c Change in general self-esteem from pre- to 12 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.9a Change in parental self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………. Figure 3.9b Change in parental self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………........ Figure 3.9c Change in parental self-esteem from pre- to 12 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.10a Change in social self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.10b Change in social self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………......... Figure 3.10c Change in social self-esteem from pre- to 12 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.11a Change in personal self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………. Figure 3.11b Change in personal self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………......... Figure 3.11c Change in personal self-esteem from pre- to 12 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.12a Change in global self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………. Figure 3.12b Change in global self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………......... 211 211 211 212 212 212 217 217 217 218 218 218 219 219 219 220 220 220 221 221 221 222 222 222  12 Figure 3.12c Change in global self-esteem from pre- to 12 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.13 Academic self-esteem of participants N1 to N8…………...………... Figure 3.14 General self-esteem of participants N1 to N8…….…...……………... Figure 3.15 Parental self-esteem of participants N1 to N8………………………... Figure 3.16 Social self-esteem of participants N1 to N8…………………………. Figure 3.17 Personal self-esteem of participants N1 to N8………………………… Figure 3.18 Global self-esteem of participants N1 to N8 …………………...…… Figure 3.19a Change in academic self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention………………………………………………………………………... Figure 3.19b Change in academic self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………...... Figure 3.19c Change in academic self-esteem from pre- to 9month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.20a Change in general self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention………………………………………………………………………... Figure 3.20b Change in general self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………...... Figure 3.20c Change in general self-esteem from pre- to 9 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.21a Change in parental self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention………………………………………………………………………... Figure 3.21b Change in parental self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………...... Figure 3.21c Change in parental self-esteem from pre- to 9 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.22a Change in social self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention………………………………………………………………………... Figure 3.22b Change in social self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………...... Figure 3.22c Change in social self-esteem from pre- to 9 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.23a Change in personal self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention………………………………………………………………………... Figure 3.23b Change in personal self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………...... Figure 3.23c Change in personal self-esteem from pre- to 9 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 3.24a Change in global self-esteem from pre- to immediate post- intervention………………………………………………………………………... Figure 3.24b Change in global self-esteem from pre- to 6 month post- intervention……………………………………………………………………...... Figure 3.24c Change in global self-esteem from pre- to 9 month post- intervention…………………………………………………………………………… Figure 4.1 Scree plot of Eigenvalues by components……………………………. 226 226 227 227 228 228 234 234 234 235 235 235 236 236 236 237 237 237 238 238 238 239 239 239 276  13 Declaration I, Gabrielle Friese-Greene Pitfield, confirm that the Thesis is my own work. I am aware of the University’s Guidance on the Use of Unfair Means (www.sheffield.ac.uk/ssid/unfair-means). This work has not been previously been presented for an award at this, or any other, university.  14 Chapter 1 An exploration of self-esteem in adolescence from a mixed methods positive psychology perspective This chapter introduces the construct of self-esteem, its association with cognitive advances and identity formation and the developmental trajectory of global self-esteem. The five different domains of self-esteem that form the focus of this thesis are discussed before investigating the ramifications of low self-esteem. Specific reference is given to the impact of low self-esteem on the ‘vulnerable adolescents’ that comprise the participants for Studies 1 and 2, i.e., adolescents with dyslexia and disengaged adolescents at risk of becoming NEET – Not in Education, Employment or Training. This chapter also discusses the rationale underlying the adoption of a mixed methods approach throughout this thesis in line with the research questions. A combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods were used to explore the level and promotion of self-esteem domains in a small sample of vulnerable adolescents in Studies 1 and 2, whilst behavioural, emotional, personal, contextual and character strengths predictors of self-esteem domains within a larger adolescent sample are investigated through an online questionnaire in Study 3. The construct of epistemology is addressed and the theory underpinning synthesising quantitative and qualitative research paradigms within a pragmatist framework is outlined. Furthermore, the reasoning underlying the use of the qualitative life story methodology is discussed.  15 1.1 Self-esteem in adolescence Although self-esteem is a core construct in psychological theory, existing literature highlights a lack of consensus on the definition of self-esteem and its overlap with other self-definitions such as self-concept, self-perception, self-worth, self-competence etc. Serpe, Long-Yarrison, Stets and Stryker (2019) consider self- esteem a significant component of self-concept, viewing self-concept as a mental image that individuals possess of themselves based on self-view and assimilating the responses of others (Owens, & Samblanet, 2013). Indeed, Morawiak, Mrozinski, Gutral, Cypryańska, & Nezlek, (2018) consider self-esteem as the evaluative component of self-concept whilst self-concept clarity is the knowledge or structural component. Furthermore, Stets and Burke (2014) consider self-esteem to be three- dimensional comprising self-worth (the level of value and acceptance felt by the individual), self-efficacy (levels of competency felt) and authenticity (trueness to self). With a plethora of self-constructs evident in the literature it is critical to define clearly the definition of self-esteem which is operationalised within this thesis. Battle (2002) uses self-esteem and self-concept interchangeably as both are reflective processes underpinned by advancement in cognitive and social development. Such an approach is adopted in this thesis, based on the premise that self-esteem and self-concept are influenced by not only observing one’s own self and behaviour objectively, but by observing or imagining how others react to you and your behaviour. Therefore, throughout this thesis, self-esteem is defined as “an attitude towards oneself based on one’s recognition of abilities and limitations” (Battle, 2002, p.3). This definition was derived from Battle (2002) whose self- esteem assessment tool, the Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory (CFSEI-3), was the instrument of choice throughout the three studies.