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i IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT AND BODY IMAGE DISSATISFACTION IN COLLEGE FEMALES By Michelle E. Chase A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Science Degree With a Major in Guidance and Counseling Approved: 2 Semester Credits ______________________________ Dr. Gary Rockwood Investigation Advisor The Graduate College University of Wisconsin—Stout December, 2001  ii The Graduate College University of Wisconsin—Stout Menomonie, WI 54751 ABSTRACT Chase Michelle E. . (Writer) (Last Name) (First) (Initial) Identity Development and Body Image Dissatisfaction in College Females . (Title) Guidance and Counseling Dr. Gary Rockwood December, 2001 50 . (Graduate Major) (Research Advisor) (Month/Year) (No. of Pages) American Psychological Association (APA) Publication Manual . (Name of Style Manual Used in this Study) The importance of body image dissatisfaction and identity development among women is becoming a significant concern when considering the risk of developing eating disorders. Analysis of the two variables suggests that further research is needed to determine new and effective treatments for body image dissatisfaction and eating disorders. The present study examines the relationship between identity development and body image dissatisfaction in college females. Two scales, the Multidimensional Body- Self Relations Questionnaire—Appearance Scales and the Tennessee Self Concept Scale were administered to 15 participants. Scores for the two instruments were correlated to determine whether a relationship exists between the two constructs with the purpose of possibly developing a new avenue for treatment of body image dissatisfaction.  iii Data analysis using the Pearson’s r correlation coefficient suggests a positive correlation exists between some aspects of self-concept and level of body image dissatisfaction. Specific relationships found were: satisfaction with body areas and satisfaction with identity in terms of self-concept, satisfaction with body areas and how one is accepted by others, and identity in terms of self-concept and satisfaction with physical appearance. When examining the relationship between efforts spent on physical appearance improvement and identity in terms of self-concept, no significant relationship was found. Implications of these and other findings are discussed as well as recommendations for future studies on identity and body image dissatisfaction.  iv Table of Contents Page Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Tables……………………………………………………………………………………..vi Chapter I –Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….3 Hypotheses……………………………………………………………………… ..3 Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………..4 Chapter II –Review of Literature………………………………………………………….6 General Information……………………………………………………………….6 Influences of the Media Discussed in Past Research……………………………..7 Body Image and Body Image Dissatisfaction…………………………………….9 Body Image and Self-Esteem…………………………………………………….11 Past Assessment and Treatment of Body Image Dissatisfaction………………..13 Identity Development Explanations and Models………………………………..16 Marcia’s Statuses Defined……………………………………………………….19 Identity Diffusion………………………………………………………..19 Identity Foreclosure……………………………………………………...19 Moratorium………………………………………………………………19 Achieved Identity………………………………………………………..20 Identity Development and Self-Esteem………………………………………………….21 Identity Development and Body Image Dissatisfaction…………………………………23 Chapter III –Methodology……………………………………………………………….26  v Introduction………………………………………………………………………26 Participants……………………………………………………………………….26 Instrumentation…………………………………………………………………..27 Procedures………………………………………………………………………..31 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….31 Limitations……………………………………………………………………….32 Chapter IV –Results……………………………………………………………………...33 Introduction………………………………………………………………………33 Findings………………………………………………………………………….33 Table 1…………………………………………………………………………..34 Table 2…………………………………………………………………………. 36 Summary………………………………………………………………………...36 Chapter V –Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations………………………………..38 Summary…………………………………………………………………………38 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………41 Recommendations………………………………………………………………..43 References………………………………………………………………………………..46  vi Tables Page Table 1: Correlations Between Body Areas Satisfaction Scores (MBSRQ—AS) And Two Sub-scales of the TSCS……………………………………………..35 Table 2: Correlation Between Identity Scores (TSCS) and Two Sub-scale Scores on the MBSRQ—AS and the TSCS……………………………………37  1 CHAPTER I Introduction It has been well documented that the majority of the clinical population struggling with body image dissatisfaction are women. According to Rita Jackaway Freedman (1986), for a woman to be considered well adjusted in western society, she is expected to conform to the behavioral norms for her gender even if these may be considered undesirable to a person who is mentally healthy. This is contradictory to what the women’s movement stands for. Our society engulfs women and young girls in a myriad of media images filled with unattainable ideals. What is even more alarming is the rate at which advertisements and magazines tell women to pay attention to their outer appearance. Many do not say how women can develop their inner appearances. Many models of identity development have developed from J. E. Marcia’s theory on identity formation (1966). His research has shown that women with more advanced and well-formed identities have higher self-esteem and, in turn, lower levels of body image dissatisfaction. They are also shown to resist conforming to social ideals and standards. In this model, the phases of development are referred to as statuses. Individuals may enter and leave any one of these statuses in conjunction with important life events or changes. The phases involve various levels of commitment to goals and values. A distinguishing factor is whether there is a presence of self-exploration or lack thereof. One status in particular seems to contain the characteristic of conformity. This is to say that those who have adopted the values and goals of others without exploring for themselves may have more of a tendency to conform to the majority’s expectations.  2 As stated in Koff, Rierdan, and Stubbs (1990), Erik Erikson believed the body is “a source of identity and self-concept” (page 57). If identity and self-concept are separate constructs within the body, body image, identity development and self-concept could be studied to determine any level of correlation. Koff, Rierdan, and Stubbs (1990) found that a higher level of body image satisfaction was correlated with a higher level of self-esteem in both males and females. Allgood-Meten, Lewinsohn, & Hops (1990) stated that body image is not actually a separate construct, but an important part of self- esteem. It is the purpose of this study to determine the level of correlation between body image dissatisfaction and level of identity development in college women. It is hypothesized that the less advanced a woman’s identity is, the more she tends to conform to standards and values of others. Plainly stated, the less developed her identity, the more she feels the need to improve her outer appearance as she is surrounded by these daily messages. From the results of this study, new counseling implications could be developed to assist those suffering from body image dissatisfaction. One recommendation could be to encourage self-esteem development and identity exploration to help the client gain focus toward her inside “appearance”. The current study investigates the links among body image satisfaction, self- esteem and identity development. It hypothesizes that the more positive one feels about his or her body, they will most likely experience high self-esteem. This study also hypothesizes that in these individuals, identity would be developed beyond that of adopting and conforming to the values and goals of others. With significant results, it could be said that women less likely to conform to society’s ideals have higher self-  3 esteem , do not invest a significant amount of time in trying to look the way society encourages, and take the time to cultivate their own beliefs and values. Statement of the Problem The purpose of the study is to determine the level of correlation between body image dissatisfaction as measured by the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire—Appearance Scales, and identity development as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, in a population of college women at the University of Wisconsin—Stout in Menomonie, WI. Hypotheses There are 4 null hypotheses proposed in this study. They are as follows: Ho1: There will be no significant correlation between Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS) scores on the MBSRQ-AS and identity satisfaction scores on the TSCS. Ho2: There will be no statistically significant correlation between scores on the BASS sub-scale of the MBSRQ-AS and scores on the Social Self sub-scale on the TSCS. Ho3: There will be no statistically significant correlation between identity scores on the TSCS and Physical Self scores on the TSCS. Ho4: There will be no statistically significant correlation between Appearance Orientation scores on the MBSRQ—AS and identity scores on the TSCS. There are four hypotheses for this study. They are as follows: there will be a positive correlation between scores on the BASS scores on the MBSRQ-AS and Identity Satisfaction scores on the TSCS. There will be a positive correlation between BASS scores on the MBSRQ-AS and Social Self scores on the TSCS. There will be a positive  4 correlation between Identity scores on the TSCS and Physical Self scores on the TSCS. There will be a negative correlation between scores for Identity on the TSCS and the scores for the sub-scale of Appearance Orientation in college women at the University of Wisconsin—Stout. Definition of Terms: Body Image Dissatisfaction: In this study, a term referring to the extent to which an individual dislikes one’s own body appearance, according to one’s own interpretation. Self Esteem: A noun used to refer to satisfaction with one’s own worth. Identity Diffusion: According to J. E. Marcia’s (1966) theory of identity development, a term referring to the status of development in which there is no commitment to internally set values and goals. This is the least developmentally advanced of the statuses. Identity Foreclosure: According to J. E. Marcia (1966), a term referring to the status of identity development in which there is an increased level of commitment following little or no exploration to cultivate one’s own values and goals. A person bases his or her identity on those of others such as parents and teachers. This is a less developed state than Moratorium or Achievement. Moratorium: According to J. E. Marcia (1966), a term referring to the process of forming an identity. Occupational, interpersonal, and ideological values are established. This status is characterized as exploring one’s options.  5 Identity Achievement: According to J. E. Marcia (1966), a term referring to a state of autonomous resolution of identity using a set of values and beliefs adopted during the Moratorium status. Self-concept: In this study, a term referring to the understanding of the way in which one perceives oneself.  6 CHAPTER II Review of Literature General Information Since the early 1980’s, it is becoming evident that many non-eating disordered people have some level of appearance-related body-image disturbance (Cash, Winstead, Janela, 1986; Thompson & Psaltis, 1988; Thompson & Spana, 1988). The majority of this body of knowledge comes from researching the female population. The media contains many examples of visual influences projecting appearance ideals onto women. Many popular magazines focus women’s attention on spending more effort on outer appearances rather than inner development. Women then choose to invest energy into so- called self-improvement based on the messages presented to them by the media. Rita Jackaway Freedman (1986) even went as far as to say, “Women actually have begun to equate what they look like with who they are”(page 28). The following review will focus on body image perception and identity development in women. Due to the lack of research on the relationship of the two variables, self-esteem and self-concept will be explored as the linking factor between body image perceptions and identity development. This research will also explore new avenues for treating body image dissatisfaction by discussing the benefits of encouraging identity development in women.  7 Influences of the Media Discussed in Past Research Ideals of feminine beauty have changed throughout history due to the influence of the media and fashion industries. This suggests that women pay constant attention to these standards in an attempt to remain desirable to society. Basic statistical information has contributed sufficient reason to study the effects of the media on women’s perceived body image satisfaction. Heinberg, Thompson, & Stormer (1995) directly stated that the ideal body shape for females found in television and print media have been related to body image dissatisfaction in groups of women. It has been suggested that just being exposed to certain pictures in magazines has evoked feelings of dissatisfaction, low self- esteem, and a desire to restrict eating. On the other hand, Cusumano & Thompson (1997) failed to document a relation between exposure to media ideals and the above-mentioned feelings. A study conducted by Nemeroff, Stein, Diehl, and Smilack (1994) found there are many more body-oriented articles in women’s magazines than in men’s magazines. Women’s magazines had 10.5 times as many advertisements and articles promoting weight loss (Anderson & DiDomenico, 1992). This is ironically the same ratio for cases of anorexia nervosa in women and men! Evans, Rutberg, Sather, and Turner (1991) found that female teen magazines advocate “self-improvement”. However, the articles focused solely on the aspect of appearance beautification rather than development of the inner self. Unfortunately, the popular culture has adopted the unwritten rule that “if you are beautiful, you are worthy”. Inevitably this standard is found in every part of the country.  8 As a result women everywhere become a product of “social conditioning” (Freedman, 1986). As a general undertone of popular culture, physically attractive females and males are viewed as being happier, more successful, smarter, more interesting, more poised, and more sociable than their less attractive counterparts (Dion, Berchied, & Walster, 1982). With this in mind, it is becoming more evident that our western culture and societal ideals foster development of the outer self more so than the development of identity and self-concept. With this trend a concept has been developed called “appearance-based stereotyping”. In essence, “what is beautiful is good” and “what is ugly is bad”. This is the theory that has determined certain physical appearances and attributes to be more favorable than others. These include facial characteristics, weight, height and grooming (Alley, 1988; Cash, 1981; Porter, 1985). Appearance variables have been found to affect attributes, actions of others, and social attitudes. As an example of appearance-based stereotyping, Thomas, Ricciardelli, & Williams (2000) found young girls and boys ages 7-11 to rate obese children as having fewer friends, being less liked by their parents, doing below average in school, being lazy, being less than happy, and being less attractive. To a certain degree, the women who invest considerable time and energy in changing their appearances to fit the social ideal are conformers. This is where the variable of identity development enters the research picture. There are certain “statuses” of identity development in which an apparent resistance to conformity is present. The following review will highlight certain models of identity development that alternate between those who conform to social standards and those who do not.  9 Body Image and Body Image Dissatisfaction The term “body image” has been used as a blanket statement with a specific meaning depending on a single researcher’s intentions (Cash & Brown, 1987). Several different variables have been researched in the area of body image and body image dissatisfaction. Body image research findings actually began in the examining rooms of neurologists to study distortions in body perceptions of brain-damaged individuals (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990). Studies have been done on phantom limb experiences (Cofer, 1980), body-size distortions associated with anorexia (Casper, et al, 1979), reactions to one’s body after plastic surgery (Goin & Goin, 1981), and accuracy in the perception of body sensations (Katkin, Blascovich & Koenigsberg, 1989). Similar to the field of eating disorders research and treatment, body image dissatisfaction has been largely prevalent in the female population, clinical and otherwise. Cash, Ancis, and Strachan (1997) have made the statement that half of all American females have a negative evaluation of their overall appearance. As a result, gender has been declared a most important factor in the development of an individual’s body image. Extreme cases of dissatisfaction have been referred to as “Body Dysmorphic Disorder” (DSM-IV, 1994) which has been defined as “the preoccupation with an imagined or exaggerated defect in physical appearance” (p. 445). Size overestimation (also known as body image distortion) is not specific to the anorexic population (Cash & Brown, 1987; Slade, 1985; Thompson & Thompson, 1986). Research conducted by Kostanski and Gullone (1998) has made it clear that body image dissatisfaction is very evident among the non-eating disordered population of adolescent females. Body image has always been a difficult concept to define. Cash and Pruzinsky (1990) now distinguish at least two independent components: 1) perceptual body image