Instagram and Eating Disorders; An Empirical Study of the (PDF)

University of Arkansas, Fayetteville University of Arkansas, Fayetteville [email protected] [email protected] Graduate Theses and Dissertations 5-2020 Instagram and Eating Disorders: An Empirical Study of the Effects Instagram and Eating Disorders: An Empirical Study of the Effects of Instagram on Disordered Eating Habits Among Young Girls of Instagram on Disordered Eating Habits Among Young Girls Katherine Wayles University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd Part of the American Popular Culture Commons, Communication Technology and New Media Commons, Critical and Cultural Studies Commons, Graphic Communications Commons, Mass Communication Commons, Public Relations and Advertising Commons, and the Social Media Commons Citation Citation Wayles, K. (2020). Instagram and Eating Disorders: An Empirical Study of the Effects of Instagram on Disordered Eating Habits Among Young Girls. Graduate Theses and Dissertations Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/3595 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by [email protected] It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of [email protected] For more information, please contact [email protected]  Instagram and Eating Disorders: An Empirical Study of the Effects of Instagram on Disordered Eating Habits Among Young Girls A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Journalism by Katherine Wayles University of Arkansas Bachelor of Arts in Journalism, 2018 May 2020 University of Arkansas This thesis is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council. Jee Young Chung, Ph.D. Thesis Director Rob Wells, Ph.D. Ron Warren, Ph.D. Committee Member Committee Member  Abstract Scholars have studied the relationship between body dissatisfaction and social media use, particularly focusing on young women as vulnerable consumers. Many studies concentrate on the amount of media consumed, rather than the specific activities and behaviors associated with feelings of low self-esteem or poor body image. It is important to determine exactly what behaviors and social media engagements contribute to disordered relationships with food, assessing a user’s pre-existing weight/body concerns in relation to the amount and type of media they consume. Instagram in particular is included in this study, as it is an image-based social networking site where users can engage with peers and celebrities, recently emerging as an advantageous advertising site for companies. This study uses the Tripartite Model of Influence to determine the correlation between Instagram usage and self-esteem, as family, friends and media contribute to the growth and development of a young woman’s self-esteem and relationship with food. It is imperative that these measures be taken into account to further understand social media’s influence on consumers, particularly young women who, through the Social Comparison Theory, are at risk for developing eating disorders and body dysmorphia. Through a comprehensive questionnaire about individual activities, experiences and engagements on Instagram, this study of 187 media users was able to correlate many disordered behaviors and beliefs with Instagram usage.  Table of Contents Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 1 Literature review ............................................................................................................................. 4 Instagram..................................................................................................................................... 5 Instagram behavior and upward comparison .............................................................................. 7 Rewarding the thin ideal ........................................................................................................... 10 Self-esteem and thin ideal consumption ................................................................................... 13 Body dissatisfaction and the thin ideal ..................................................................................... 14 The dual pathway model: Media consumption & body dissatisfaction .................................... 17 Tripartite Influence Model ........................................................................................................ 18 Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 22 Participants ................................................................................................................................ 22 Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 23 Independent variables ............................................................................................................... 23 Dependent variables .................................................................................................................. 25 Behavioral/physical eating disorders ........................................................................................ 27 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 33 Instagram usage and cognitive eating disorders ....................................................................... 33 Instagram usage and behavioral eating disorders ..................................................................... 35 Instagram usage and body dissatisfaction ................................................................................. 36 Instagram usage and PACS ....................................................................................................... 36 Instagram usage and CPSA ....................................................................................................... 37 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 38 Instagram usage and cognitive eating disorders ....................................................................... 39 Instagram usage and behavioral eating disorders ..................................................................... 41 Instagram usage and PACS ....................................................................................................... 42 Instagram usage and CPSA ....................................................................................................... 44 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 44 Directions for future research ................................................................................................... 45 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 46 References ..................................................................................................................................... 47 Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 58  Appendix 1: Instagram Engagement Questionnaire ................................................................. 58 Appendix 2: Eating Behavior Questionnaire ............................................................................ 59 Appendix 3: Physical Appearance Comparison Scale: Pre-Test .............................................. 61 Appendix 4: Competition Stress and Physical Appearance (CSPA): Pre-Test ........................ 62 Appendix 5: Attitude Questionnaire ......................................................................................... 64 Appendix 6: The CPSA Post-Test ............................................................................................ 65 Appendix 7: IRB Approval ....................................................................................................... 66  1 Introduction Mass media is a broad form of technological communication that influences global audiences by reflecting sociocultural values, beliefs, trends and attitudes (Comstock & Scharrer, 2007). Mass media include traditional forms of broad-audience communication (i.e., television, broadcast radio, etc.) and new, evolving communication outlets like social media (i.e., Instagram, Facebook, etc.). Media may be the most important influence in the lives of young people as learn from their interactions online, particularly with peer groups, friends, online social circles, and discussion groups (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994). Social media, in particular, allows individuals to communicate with and influence their audience in new and exciting ways. While these advancements allow the average person to communicate more broadly, the effects of said communication are significantly different than those of traditional platforms (Bessenoff, 2006). Social media allows individuals to communicate with one another, sharing and participating in social networking and creating a sense of community not found in other mass media outlets like television, magazines, etc. (Bessenoff, 2006). This sense of community has both positive and negative implications. The negative implications include, but are not limited to, underdeveloped social behaviors, stress and an inability to engage in face-to-face communication (Mabe, Forney & Keel, 2014). Adolescent studies have verified the unique effects of social media usage, attributing it to an increase in violence (O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011), sexualization (Ramsey & Horan, 2016) and narcissism (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). Recent studies also suggest that time spent on social media sites may lead to a low sense of self-worth and negative body image (Eckler, Kalyango & Paasch, 2017; Mabe et al., 2014; Smith, et al., 2013). Social media, while sometimes a positive social influence in the lives of young people, can also be a source of competition and comparison  2 amongst young men and women (Bessenoff, 2006). With the influx of brands on social media, there can be confusion between what is social networking and what is active advertising. Previous research has studied the relationship between consumers and brands, focusing on the impact of advertisements on traditional media users (Conley & Ramsey, 2011). Recently, however, studies are focusing on how consumers interact not only with brands, but with one another, as their social circles have extended to include celebrities and influencers (Ferguson, 2013). When users engage with both peers and celebrities on Instagram, they may be unknowingly increasing their appearance anxiety and competition stress (Bessenoff, 2006). This study is concerned with the attitude and behavior of Instagram consumers, particularly focusing on the ways they interact with one another, celebrities, influencers and brands. When consumers originally began using Instagram, it was a peer-networking site (Woods, 2013). Today, however, brands, celebrities and influencers have entered the space, possibly creating a sense of dissonance and confusion amongst consumers (Maltby, Houran, & McCutcheon, 2003). Instead of interacting purely with peers on Instagram, consumers are now engaging with paid advertisers and celebrity influencers (Woods, 2013). This change in environment can cause confusion in the minds of consumers as they are accessing a historically consumer-controlled social networking site that has changed into a profitable, advertising sphere (Maltby et al., 2003). Previously, celebrities and influencers behaved independently, posting photos of their lives and activities, but the influx of advertising has caused a change in the Instagram environment. It is important now, more than ever, for Instagram celebrities to post attractive, engaging photos to better sell products and maintain their advertising revenue. The timing of this study is unique as the atmosphere of Instagram is changing to include brands and advertisements. Social media figures, then, are presenting more edited and filtered versions of themselves to make financial profit from  3 the brands they support and the users they engage with. This can further confuse Instagram users as these celebrities are no longer behaving as “friends,” but more as models for advertising purposes. Young adults may still feel they are engaging with the celebrities/influencers themselves without realizing their engagements are used for financial gain. Instead of following just the user, they are now engaging with brands and advertisements instead of everyday people. This can affect perception, confusing Instagram users as the quality of posts is changing and improving to combat the competitive advertising environment, rather than just competing amongst other users. Through Social Comparison Theory, the dual pathway model and the Tripartite Influence Model, young people, women in particular, are susceptible to the negative and unrealistic images of women in advertisements as they internalize these stereotypical portrayals and are societally expected to adhere to these ideals (Gerbner, 1998; Van Lange, Kruglanski & Higgins, 2012). It is important to study the effects of social media on consumers, particularly young media consumers, as they are more vulnerable to the effects of advertising, including body dissatisfaction and eating disorders (Barth & Starkman, 2016). Through a quantitative survey, this study looks to determine the correlation between Instagram engagement and body dissatisfaction which can manifest into disordered eating behaviors. This study aims to identify the possible impact of social media use on users’ body image, focusing primarily on young women as they are more likely to develop eating disorders and body dissatisfaction, competition stress and low self-esteem (Barth & Starkman, 2016). This study is important in this era of media advertising as Instagram is a platform used by young people, brands, celebrities and advertisers. Social media effects are being heavily focused on in advertising and psychological research as their influence is developing at increasingly fast rates  4 as younger generations are interacting more with a multitude of platforms. Instagram in particular is primarily an image-based social networking site designed to bolster online and real- life relationships. Because social media sites have only been implemented in the late 2000s, the long-lasting effects of social media engagement is unknown. This study looks to determine how social media engagement relates to body image, eating disorders and competition stress, particularly amongst young women. Theoretically, young people are influenced by people they are regularly in contact with, especially family, friends and the media. Previous studies have determined that media, social media in particular, can be a negative influence in the lives of young people, especially in regard to self-esteem and body image issues. This study looks to determine if there is a correlation between low self-esteem/body dissatisfaction and time spent on Instagram, particularly focusing on specific relationships and engagements. This information could inform young people of the dangers of social media, possibly creating regulations and improving personal awareness. This information could help young people put social media in perspective and understand why they may be experiencing low levels of self-esteem/self-worth. Literature review Mass media are influential mediums from which people learn acceptable behaviors and judge how they conform or do not conform to societal standards (Comstock & Scharrer, 2007; Harris, 2013). Many studies have discovered the correlation between media and body dissatisfaction amongst young women, indicating that female consumers are negatively influenced by images of other women, particularly those that represent the idealized body (e.g., Eckler et al., 2014; Grabe et al., 2008; Levine & Murnen, 2009; Mabe et al., 2014; Smith et al., 2013). The idealized body is typically thin with disproportionately large breasts and buttocks (Ferguson, 2013; Levine & Murnen, 2009). This body type is unattainable for the general  5 population and less than two percent of actual female bodies adhere to this standard (Grabe, et al., 2008). With modern advancements like photoshop and enhancement surgeries, it is becoming increasingly difficult for consumers to determine which aspects of a photo are natural and which are edited (Hawkins et al., 2004; Hern, 2018). Many users report that they use Instagram to “stay in touch” with friends and colleagues, and to stay up to date with the lives of celebrities and influencers, gaining knowledge about what is fashionable and desirable from the site (Ramsey & Horan, 2016). Because Instagram serves as both a social networking site and a place of information and celebrity gossip, it is important to study the particular behaviors that each user participates in and who they are engaging with when they access the site. Researchers have found that what users do on social media is just as important as who they are doing said behaviors with (Meier & Gray, 2014). Graff (2008) found that higher levels of thin ideal internalization predict body dissatisfaction, which is also associated with heightened levels of eating disorders and unhealthy eating behaviors. When combined with pre-existing body concerns and an appearance-based self- schema, media can serve as models of reinforcement, influencing young women to adhere to unattainable standards by advertising social rewards and benefits for those that conform (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2002; Levine & Murnen, 2009). Instagram Instagram is widely popular among young people, young women in particular, according to Statista. The United States has the largest population of Instagram users, with over 115 million people accessing the application (Chen, 2020). Instagram has a large global presence, with 73 million people accessing the app in India, and another 72 million in Brazil (Chen, 2020). According to Statista, over 30 percent of teenagers in the United States rate Instagram as their  6 favorite social network, and over 40 percent of women use Instagram (Chen, 2020). Additionally, the target demographic, teenagers and young adults, are very active on the app, with over 72 percent of 13-17-year old people reporting active use and 75 percent of 18-24 year people using Instagram (Chen, 2020). Financially, Instagram is growing in influence, with over 800 million users, growing at nearly 360 percent (+357 percent). In 2019, advertising on Instagram reached $2.3 billion (Routley, 2017). The app also reports significant influence on purchase decisions, as neary 72% of Instagram users report they have made purchase decisions based on an Instagram advertisement (Routey, 2017). The financial and social benefits of Instagram may not outweigh the negative effects, the main focus of this particular study. A report by the Royal Society for Public Health in the UK surveyed over 1,500 people between the ages of 14 and 24 to pinpoint the effects of social media platforms, focusing mainly on anxiety, depression and body image issues (Firestone, 2020). According to the survey, Instagram has the most negative effect on young people’s mental health, reporting it negatively affects body image and sleep, increasing bullying, anxiety, depression and loneliness (Firestone, 2020). This study is particularly powerful as anxiety and depression has increased by over 70 percent in young people over the last 25 years (Firestone, 2020). The authors report, “Using social media for more than two hours per day has been independently associated with poor self-rating of mental health, increased levels of psychological distress and suicidal ideation,” (Firestone, 2020). The negative impact of Instagram on young people has not been thoroughly studied as the application is relatively new. This study looks to offer further insight into the lasting impressions of the application on the minds of young people, young women in particular.  7 Instagram Behavior and Upward Comparison Previous studies suggested that time spent on social media was the biggest influence on a user’s perception of self, meaning the more time spent on media, the more likely a user was going to develop low self-esteem (Stice & Bearman, 2001). Tiggemann and Miller (2010), however, elaborated on this connection, determining that while time is a substantially sound measurement of interaction, it is more likely that time spent engaging in specific activities, particularly appearance-related exposures, affects consumers the most. This finding prompted researchers to determine if there are additional contributors to low self-esteem, in addition to time and post engagement. Meier and Gray (2014) performed a study of Facebook that echoed Tiggemann and Miller’s (2010) findings, reporting a positive correlation in photo-related Facebook activities and body image problems. These findings prompted researchers to study the time spent engaging in specific operations, rather than just studying the overall time spent on social media sites. Frison and Eggermont (2016) determined that social networking sites are hubs of two forms of behavior: active and passive usage. Active usage/engagement includes liking and posting photos/videos, engaging with other users and regularly updating online profiles (Frison & Eggermont, 2016). Active social media engagement is beneficial for a user’s self-esteem as self-presentation and self-disclosure aid an individual’s social growth (Vogel et al., 2014). Active social media usage facilitates psychosocial adaption, defined as the behavioral and cognitive advancements an organism uses to survive in a group (Vogel et al., 2014; Toma & Hancock, 2013). This adaptation is formed from the reward process of “likes” on Instagram, the fundamental driving force behind the site. Instagram is based on reward processes where “likes” are given as rewards to people who adhering to a certain image, particularly one that portrays  8 users as thin, healthy, happy and active (Hern, 2018). This reward system was further advanced in 2016 when Instagram created an algorithm that populates feeds with popular content rather than recent content (Hern, 2018). For regular users and especially people who financially benefit from the site (i.e., influencers), it is advantageous to post photos that will generate “likes,” posting content that adheres to the societal standard of beauty and success (Hern, 2018). When users engage with Instagram and are rewarded for it, they are positively affected by the site, experiencing high levels of self-esteem. Passive engagement, however, is the detached, unemotional consumption of other users’ posts and updates (Mukherjee & Jansen, 2017). When users behave passively, they are more likely to experience low levels of self-esteem as they do not receive rewards or positive reinforcement from the site (Mukherjee & Jansen, 2017). Furthermore, passive consumption can lead to low levels of self-worth and high levels of negative affect as information published on Instagram is typically unrealistic and overly positive, with people presenting the best image of themselves on social media (Kross et al., 2013; Verduyn et al., 2015). Regardless of what Instagram users are actually experiencing, they are, through the reward system and Instagram algorithm, encouraged to post pictures that indicate the user is living an enviable, enjoyable lifestyle (Hern, 2018). Consuming these images, and not actively participating in this behavior can lead to creates confusion for passive users, as they may compare themselves to the images presented online without considering the level of distortion (Feinstein et al., 2013). Young consumers, in particular, are vulnerable to this distortion as they may not understand the level of editing and photoshop that goes into an individual’s Instagram post. Passive social media engagement is additionally dangerous when users consume images of people who seem more successful or attractive than themselves (Feinstein et al., 2013; Vogel  9 et al., 2015). This type of comparison is prevalent on social media sites, Instagram in particular, as the nature of the site encourages users to present themselves in their best light (Hern, 2018). This process of comparison is called “upward social comparison,” which leads to low levels of self-esteem and self-worth (Feinstein et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017). Social comparison is a natural response to social interaction, as people learn through interactions and internal comparisons to those surrounding them (Stice et al., 2001). Social comparison is detrimental to mental health, however, when people include celebrities/influencers, professional models and people of significantly higher social standing in their imagined social circle. Instagram is unique as users are able to engage with celebrities, brands and influencers while simultaneously engaging with friends and family. When social media consumers follow and engage with as many celebrities as they do friends/peers, they may begin to unknowingly include them in their social sphere, making celebrities/influencers a reasonable person to compare themselves to (Hayes & Rich, 2002). This subconscious upward social comparison is experienced by many social media users, however those with a neurotic obsession with their appearance can experience depression and anxiety from this behavior (Hayes & Rich, 2002). Upward comparison, especially when users compare themselves to professional models or actors, is particularly unhealthy considering the usage of photoshop, professional lighting or editing, celebrities use to appear more attractive on Instagram (Maltby, Houran & McCutcheon, 2003). Active social media engagement may be just as negative as passive engagement, according to a study performed by Ruckel and Hill in 2017. They reported that active social media engagement contributes more to negative self-esteem than passive engagement as adherence to societal ideals is positively correlated with an increase in acceptance, shown on  10 Instagram as the number of “likes,” comments and positive engagements (Ruckel & Hill, 2017). When users post photos/engage on Instagram and do not receive the expected rewards, they are likely to experience low self-esteem (Ramsey & Horan, 2016). Furthermore, Ruckel and Hill (2017) found that these individuals may begin to assume people do not want to engage with them or are not impressed by their appearance/lifestyle. Meier and Gray (2014) studied how social media engagement can affect a user’s sense of reality, extending outside of the site. When users do not receive the rewards they expected, they presume that other users have a low opinion of them, regardless of people’s actual opinions (Meir & Gray, 2014). Internalizing self-worth from the presumed opinions of others is detrimental to body image and can contribute to lowered feelings of self-worth, as the level of social media engagement does not necessarily represent what people actually think about the Instagram user. Vogel et al. (2014) discovered that other users’ opinions are very important to an Instagram user’s sense of self-worth. Believing that they are not presenting the correct image may lead active social media users to distort the image of themselves to better adhere to the societally accepted/rewarded ideals. Rewarding the Thin Ideal Western beauty can be comprehensively defined by the thin ideal. The “thin ideal” is the advertised “perfect” female body displayed in media as a slender woman whose weight is advertised within the optimal standard within timely and cultural contexts (Graff et al., 2003; Levine, 20100). The thin ideal has been defined differently each decade, with researchers first looking to determine the exact standards in the 1980s, when Garner Garfinkel, Schwartz, and Thompson (1980) studied the changing bodies of Playboy centerfolds. These models have historically represented the “epitome of the female body shape ideal” (Cusumano & Thompson,