Male Violence against Women in Intimate Relationships in (PDF)

Male Violence against Women in Intimate Relationships in Iceland – Report of the Minister of Welfare (Excerpts)  Ministry of Welfare: [Male Violence against Women in Intimate Relationships (excerpts)] February 2012 Publisher: Ministry of Welfare Hafnarhúsinu við Tryggvagötu 150 Reykjavík Tel: 545 8100 Fax: 551 9165 E-Mail: [email protected] Website: velferdarraduneyti.is Layout and text: Ministry of Welfare  2012 Ministry of Welfare ISBN 978-9979-799-48-1  TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 2 1 PROPOSALS FOR GOVERNMENT MEASURES ............................................................................................. 3 1.1 COMPREHENSIVE POLICY ................................................................................................................................ 3 1.2 COLLABORATION TEAM.................................................................................................................................. 3 1.3 ACTION PLANS FOR MUNICIPALITIES ................................................................................................................. 3 1.4 VIGILANCE PROJECT IN SUÐURNES ................................................................................................................... 3 1.5 ALCOHOL POLICY .......................................................................................................................................... 4 1.6 RECORD-KEEPING ......................................................................................................................................... 4 1.7 SCREENING/SEARCH ..................................................................................................................................... 4 1.8 ADDICTION TREATMENT CLINICS ...................................................................................................................... 4 1.9 TRAINING FOR HEALTHCARE STAFF ................................................................................................................... 4 1.10 TRAINING FOR TEACHERS ............................................................................................................................... 4 1.11 TRAINING IN UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMMES FOR PROFESSIONS........................................................................... 4 1.12 PUBLIC AWARENESS ...................................................................................................................................... 5 1.13 THERAPY FOR VIOLENT MEN ........................................................................................................................... 5 1.14 EMERGENCY TRAUMA ASSISTANCE FOR CHILDREN LIVING WITH DOMESTIC VIOLENCE .................................................. 5 1.15 WOMEN FROM OTHER COUNTRIES ................................................................................................................... 5 1.16 OLDER WOMEN ........................................................................................................................................... 5 1.17 WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES ............................................................................................................................ 5 1.18 LESBIAN WOMEN ......................................................................................................................................... 6 1.19 MEDIATION ................................................................................................................................................ 6 1.20 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS ............................................................................................................ 6 1.21 THE WOMEN’S SAFE SHELTER ........................................................................................................................ 6 2 RESEARCH: VIOLENCE BY MEN AGAINST WOMEN IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS...................................... 7 3 SIX STUDIES OF MALE VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP .................................. 10 3.1 THE EXTENT OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN .................................................................................................... 10 3.2 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS ................................................................................... 10 3.3 WHERE DO THE WOMEN SEEK HELP? .............................................................................................................. 11 3.4 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON - VIOLENCE IN AN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP ............................................................. 11 3.5 EXTENT, NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN ACCORDING TO RELATIONSHIP WITH PERPETRATOR 12 3.6 WHERE DO THE WOMEN SEEK HELP? ANALYSIS BY RELATIONSHIP WITH THE PERPETRATOR ........................................ 12 3.7 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON – NON-PARTNER VIOLENCE ................................................................................. 13 4 STUDIES IN FOUR FIELDS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION .......................................................................... 14 4.1 SOCIAL SERVICES AND CHILD PROTECTION SERVICES ........................................................................................... 14 4.1.1 Child protection services ................................................................................................................ 16 4.2 PRIMARY/LOWER-SECONDARY SCHOOLS ......................................................................................................... 17 4.3 HEALTHCARE SERVICES ................................................................................................................................ 19 4.4 POLICE ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 4.5 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS .......................................................................................................... 22 5 SOCIAL PROJECT ”MEN TAKE RESPONSIBILITY” (KARLAR TIL ÁBYRGÐAR) ............................................... 24 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................... 25  | 2 Introduction In 2006, the Icelandic government adopted an action plan for measures to combat violence against women in intimate relationships, based on the concept that violence against women affects everyone in society and will not be tolerated. The objective of the plan was to prevent violence against women, to enhance options for women that are subjected to violence and their children, and help men to cease violent behavior. In 2010 a report of the Minister of Welfare on measures under the government initiative regarding male violence against women in intimate relationships was published. The report is a result of a research project on violence in intimate relationships that was carried out in 2008 to 2010. Proposals for government measures and excerpt of the report follow.  | 3 1 Proposals for government measures 1.1 Comprehensive policy The government’s plan for measures to combat violence against women in intimate relationships is based on the concept that violence against women affects everyone in society and will not be tolerated. The objective of the plan is to prevent violence against women, to enhance options for women that are subjected to violence and their children, and help men to cease violent behaviour. The government's policy regarding this issue is based on a overarching vision and coordinated measures. National and local government and NGOs should work together to prevent violence against women and reinforce supportive measures. Special funding should be earmarked for this issue. Consideration should be given to whether the proposals made here, and research findings, entail a need for amendments to legislation. 1.2 Collaboration team A collaboration team should be established for a term of three years, to supervise compliance with a coordinated overall policy; collaboration agreements should be made for provision of specified services, and pilot projects should be initiated. The collaboration team should consist of representatives of the Ministry of Welfare, the Ministry of the Interior, municipalities, the police, the Centre for Gender Equality and NGOs. 1.3 Action plans for municipalities The following measures are proposed to municipalities: Municipalities should establish initiatives for measures against violence towards women. The municipality of Akureyri has made such a plan, which could serve as a model for other municipalities. Akureyri and a number of other municipalities have signed the European Charter for Equality of the Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR). The charter provides for measures against gender-based violence that can be used as a model for initiatives. Municipalities should place emphasis on training for members of the profession whom they employ, as many of these staff work in education of children and provision of social services. Women in smaller municipalities often have difficulty in seeking help in their own area or home town. Municipalities should introduce collaboration between them, to enable women who experience gender-based violence to make use of services in other municipalities. It would also be advisable for municipalities to collaborate with national government and NGOs on enhancing public awareness and other preventive measures. Municipalities should join forces to provide a number of homes (emergency accommodation), perhaps five apartments in the regions – one in Akureyri (north), one at Egilsstaðir (east), one in Selfoss (south), one in Reykjanesbær (southwest peninsula) and one in Ísafjörður (West Fjords) – for women with children, where they could stay before moving into the Women’s Safe Shelter (Kvennathvarfið) in Reykjavík. 1.4 Vigilance project in Suðurnes The Ministry of Welfare will initiate discussions with municipalities in the Suðurnes region to establish a joint vigilance and action initiative. The survey revealed that the highest prevalence of violence was in Suðurnes, while there was otherwise little regional difference. Various other indicators point to the need for enhanced social services in the area. It has the highest unemployment rate in the country according to the Ministry’s Welfare Watch  | 4 (Velferðarvaktin); in addition, students in the Suðurnes region performed less well in the PISA European educational survey than those in other regions of Iceland. 1.5 Alcohol policy The authorities should enforce a systematic alcohol policy with the aim of reducing alcohol consumption and drunkenness, and hence the violence which often arises from it. The most effective preventive measures are price control and restricting access to alcohol. 1.6 Record-keeping Record-keeping is the prerequisite for knowledge about violence against women in intimate relationships. A centralised data system for the entire country is not practicable, and thus it is not proposed here. However, it is proposed that within each field of public administration which deals with such matters, coordinated record-keeping should be introduced. 1.7 Screening/Search It is proposed that screening (searching) for women who have been subjected to violence should be introduced at healthcare centres. When some experience of screening has been gathered in selected departments of the National University Hospital (Landspítalinn), a decision should be taken as to whether this should continue and be extended to other departments. 1.8 Addiction treatment clinics At treatment clinics for alcohol or drug abuse, screening should be carried out to identify men who have subjected their partners to violence, and that should inform their treatment programme. Screening should also be carried out to identify women who have experienced violence in intimate relationships, and such trauma should be taken into account in their treatment. 1.9 Training for healthcare staff Learning about violence in intimate relationships is included in the study programmes of nursing students. Social workers also receive such training during their studies. Other medical professionals do not receive such training during their undergraduate studies, and this should be introduced. In addition, all healthcare staff should have access to continuing education. 1.10 Training for teachers Children are both victims of violence and witnesses to it. Such experiences can have an impact on their development and environment for growth. Teachers interact with children on a daily basis, and in the study of primary schools they expressed their desire to enhance their ability to assess the wellbeing of children. These wishes should be met with special courses for teachers, held by the state, municipalities or teachers’ continuing education funds. 1.11 Training in undergraduate programmes for professions It is necessary to include training about violence against women in undergraduate study programmes for various professions, for instance in the studies of doctors, lawyers, teachers and clergy.  | 5 1.12 Public awareness The Ministry of Welfare and the Centre for Gender Equality should organise an annual educational day for the public accompanied by an advertising campaign. 1.13 Therapy for violent men The male therapy programme Men Take Responsibility (Karlar til ábyrgðar) should be placed on a permanent basis. This programme has now proved its effectiveness. From 2006 to the end of 2010, 122 individuals have attended one or more consultations. The number of individual consultations in 2010 was 173, plus 12 consultations with a partner. The treatment programme is based at the Centre for Gender Equality and is financed on an annual basis. This important preventive project needs to be firmly established by the government by making an agreement with the treatment providers for several years at a time. It is essential that a formal external evaluation be carried out on the results of the programme. 1.14 Emergency trauma assistance for children living with domestic violence The Government Agency for Child Protection is now establishing a one-year pilot project in the Reykjavik area to provide immediate support to children who live with domestic violence. The Agency will seek co-operation with the police and child protection committees to hire specialised staff to be on call and respond when the police are called to homes due to domestic violence, and children are found to be present. The role of the staff member will be to attend specifically to the child, and ensure that he/she receives support within 48 hours. If this project proves to be successful, it must be placed on a permanent basis in Reykjavík, and established all over the country. 1.15 Women from other countries A collaborative project should be launched together with the Women of Multicultural Ethnicity Network (W.O.M.E.N. in Iceland), to serve the needs of women from outside the EEA, to establish a telephone helpline for women who are subjected to violence and do not speak Icelandic, and have little knowledge of Icelandic society. Women from other countries must be assisted in two ways: by preventive measures and follow-up measures. Preventive measures include Icelandic lessons and assistance in adjusting to Icelandic society. The follow-up should include provision of information and advice. Women must be informed, for instance, that they can seek counselling and support from social services, and assistance in finding accommodation and applying for Rent Benefit, without placing their residence permit at risk. Only if a woman receives financial support from public funds will she be at risk of losing her residence permit. 1.16 Older women The surveys did not address issues of older women specifically. Violence against older women needs to be considered in general, and violence in intimate relationships is part of that. 1.17 Women with disabilities Women with disabilities are a diverse group and it is advisable that violence against them in intimate relationships be researched as part of general research on women with disabilities.  | 6 1.18 Lesbian women Information on violence in women’s same-sex relationships was not sought specifically. It is advisable to do so as part of general research on lesbian women. 1.19 Mediation Special consideration should be given to establishing a mediation pilot project. A small working party should be appointed to make proposals for mediation. The preventive effect of mediation is substantial, since it helps women that are subject to violence, the men who inflict violence, and especially the children involved. Mediation is believed to be helpful both to couples who are separated and to those who intend to continue living together. 1.20 Non-governmental organisations The contribution of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) whose focus is on care for who have experienced violence, is invaluable and indispensable. It is therefore vital that the government and municipalities support these NGOs financially in an organised manner so that their valuable energy is not expended on fundraising, as is the case at present. 1.21 The Women’s Safe Shelter In all studies of public services, the work of the Women’s Safe Shelter was praised in particular. The Shelter has also undertaken extensive training activities for members of professions, NGOs and the public. Though it is located in Reykjavík, the Women’s Safe Shelter also serves the rural communities and it provides shelter for women from all over the country. The Shelter’s work appears to be so stable and well-established that it is recommended that national and local government undertake to make longer-term collaboration agreements. Such an agreement would include new projects, such as participation in the vigilance programme in Suðurnes.  | 7 2 Research: Violence by men against women in intimate relationships Since the 1970s, when the hidden violence that women had endured from husbands, live-in partners and boyfriends came to light, there has been a huge rise in awareness. Initially little was known about the scale of this type of violence, and research was mainly directed at revealing its nature. But before long it became clear that violence in intimate relationships was a global problem. One of the first Nordic research projects in this field was conducted in Iceland in 1979. Based on patient records from the Emergency Department at the City Hospital (Borgarspítali, now merged with the National University Hospital) it confirmed that this type of violence existed in Iceland, just as in other countries (Hildigunnur Ólafsdóttir, Sigrún Júlíusdóttir and Þorgerður Benediktsdóttir, 1982). A publication from the Ministry of Social Affairs (now Ministry of Welfare) about violence in intimate relationships includes a model for violence, which aims to explain the interaction between individual factors and social formulations of violence in intimate relationships (Ingólfur V. Gíslason, 2008). The model comprises four parts: global conditions, society, the spousal relationship and personal attributes. The main explanations are as follows: General global conditions are believed to have an impact on violence in intimate relationships. War entails men receiving military training, which promotes violence and reinforces notions of masculinity and male superiority. Globally, women have much less power than men and such imbalance between genders is conducive to the idea that women are not equal to men. Traditional, rigid gender roles and the linking of masculinity to domination and aggression may increase or sustain violence against women. Social and economic difficulties increase stress in general and can lead to violent outbreaks. Unemployment and poverty can be threatening to people’s positions and increase stress. Low income is not necessarily the cause of violence, but rather financial worries and stress. A higher stress level in a society increases the chances of women experiencing violence. Most of those who inflict violence have been raised in difficult situations such as poverty, violence and alcohol abuse, and have little education or access to the labour market. In this country, employment was very high until 2008, so unemployment was not a substantial contributory factor. In societies where the idea of superiority of men over women is accepted, women are subject to more violence than in societies where such ideas are rejected. If both men and women contribute to the family income, this type of equality is likely to mitigate violence, also in times of economic and social stress. Conflict in relationships seems to be marked by interaction between the couple being destructive, and their conversation confrontational in nature. The couples are not able to break out of the vicious cycle; instead the conflicts escalate until physical violence ensues. While the women participate in these destructive patterns of interaction, the interactions cannot be deemed to be between equals. The women tend to withdraw, while male violence is a further attempt to dominate. Personal qualities are often linked to earlier experiences, circumstances and personality disorders. Experiencing violence during childhood and lack of affection during the formative years increases the likelihood of turning to violence. Alcohol consumption and violence in intimate relationships are also closely linked. Alcohol consumption is disinhibiting, and the greater the consumption the more likelihood of violence. Other stimulants, such as amphetamine, cocaine and steroids, are also conducive to violence. Another approach is to divide the theories of intimate relationships in two groups: Gender- based power theories and lifestyle theories (Kyvsgaard and Snare, 2007). The gender-based power theory is based on violence against women being linked to coercion, and such behaviour being a gender-based phenomenon that reflects the patriarchy, where the men are the oppressors and the women are oppressed. The United Nations Declaration on the  | 8 Elimination of Violence against Women, adopted by the United Nations World Conference on Women in 1995, is predicated upon that theory. This theory is grounded in the view that all societies have a power structure in which men have a dominant position over women. Those who subscribe to this theory have often used it as an argument in their efforts to combat gender-based violence. While the power imbalance between the genders is undisputed, that alone cannot be a sufficient explanation for violence in intimate relationships. The lifestyle theory assumes that the likelihood of women experiencing violence in intimate relationships is not random or unrelated to location or time. Neither is it only by chance that men resort to violence against women in intimate relationships; rather there are certain risk factors. Lifestyle in this context is taken to mean aspects of daily life such as work, studies, housework, recreation and consumption. Other variables which influence lifestyle are age, gender, income, social status, education and employment. Both individuals and groups adopt diverse lifestyles, and hence their risk for inflicting or being subjected to violence varies. A report from the Gender Equality Forum (Jafnréttisþing) 2011 states that according to the indicators of the World Economic Forum, published in 2010, the greatest level of gender equality can be found in Iceland (Gender Equality Forum 2011). According to the gender- based power theory, Iceland should thus have the lowest prevalence of violence in intimate relationships. When the findings of an Icelandic survey on violence from 2008, conducted under the government initiative, were compared to an international survey conducted in 11 countries, it transpired that the prevalence of violence was the same in Iceland as in Denmark, although gender equality was measured as slightly greater in Iceland than in Denmark. Since the first survey on violence was conducted in Iceland in 1996 and until the above- mentioned survey of 2008, no reduction has been achieved in violence against women, as both surveys indicate almost the same prevalence of violence against women. No doubt empowerment of women has served to prevent some violence, while this trend had been cancelled out by other factors conducive to violence, relating more to lifestyle. In the period 1996-2008 women have acquired more power in society (Gender Equality Forum 2011). The proportion of women members of parliament has risen from 25% in 1995 to 32% in 2007. The proportion of women on municipal councils has risen from 25% in 1995 to 40% in 2006. Women’s participation in paid employment has risen from 75% in 1991 to 78% in 2008. Women’s share of total income has risen from 39% in 1999 to 42% in 2007. The number of women studying was three times higher in 2008 than in 1996. Women have thus strengthened their position in society, and at the same time violence against women has been recognised as a special problem that will not be tolerated by society, and must be addressed. Hence gender-based power theory alone does not explain violence against women; but, by combining it with the lifestyle theory, a better explanation and understanding of violence can be achieved. Of the factors that increase the risk of violence, alcohol consumption changed the most from 1996 to 2008. Alcohol consumption rose from 4.9 litres to 7.5 litres per person 15 years and older from 1996 to 2007, i.e. 53% over 12 years. About 75% of all alcohol is sold by the State Alcohol and Tobacco Company (ÁTVR) stores, and is thus probably consumed mainly in the home, while about 25% is consumed in restaurants and bars (Nordic statistics 1993–2007). This indicates that alcohol consumption in the home has increased greatly. Both surveys (1996 and 2008) contain information on alcohol consumption. In the earlier survey, around 71% of the women who had experienced severe violence attributed it to alcohol consumption. In the 2008 survey, 48% of the women believed that in the last violent incident the perpetrator had been intoxicated, 4% believed that the man had been under the influence of drugs (illegal or prescription) either 7% believed the man to have been under the influence of alcohol or drugs (illegal and prescription). A total of 41% reported that the perpetrator had not been under the influence of drugs or alcohol. In the women’s estimation, 32% of former partners, and 7% of present partners, who had subjected them to violence, were drunk at least once a week. About 26% of former partners used illegal drugs, and about 3% of present  | 9 partners. Thus, according to the information provided by the women, the drinking problems of former partners were severe – far more severe than in the case of present partners – and this may well explain why the women left the relationships/marriages. If post-traumatic stress disorder arising from the experience of partner violence is not addressed, the risk of alcohol and substance abuse is believed to be increased. According to the 1996 and 2008 surveys, the number of women using alcohol and drugs to cope with the experience dropped during that period. In the former survey 22% of the women had used alcohol and 20% had used drugs, but in the second survey, only 14% had used alcohol or drugs. It is possible that women had become better-informed, including knowledge of available assistance, which may have led them to seek other means of coping with their experience, instead of self-medicating with alcohol and drugs. When the second survey was carried out in 2008, the effects of Iceland’s financial collapse had not yet emerged. In the years before the collapse, the economy seemed to be booming, and the feeling in Icelandic society was that many people were “cashing in.” Those who were not profiting from the “boom,” and were thus excluded from the “game,” may have become stressed and frustrated, feeling that they were failing in the rat-race for material prosperity. The gap between haves and have-nots thus grew wider. Such feelings may exacerbate stress and reduce tolerance of irritants, which may lead to violence. Information on participation in the labour market and education is published in the report from the Gender Equality Forum 2011. In 2008, 87% of males were in employment, but the survey reveals that a lower proportion of violent men were employed, i.e. 77% in the case of present partners, and 82% of former partners. The violent men were therefore not as active in the job market as other men, which may have placed them at a disadvantage. The educational level of men aged 25 to 64 years in 2009 was as follows: 29% had a university degree, 44% had vocational or secondary education and 27% only compulsory schooling (to age 16). The survey revealed that the violent men had less education: 18% of present partners had a university degree, and only 10% of former partners; 54% of present partners had secondary education, and 41% of former partners; and 26% of present partners had only compulsory schooling, as did 47% of former spouses. The violent men thus tended to have less education than other males – especially in the case of violent former partners – and this may have placed them at a disadvantage to other men in the social context.  | 10 3 Six studies of male violence against women in intimate relationship At the request of the Ministry of Social Affairs (now Ministry of Welfare), the Centre for Children and Family Research (Rannsóknastofnun í barna- og fjölskylduvernd, RBF) undertook a study of male violence towards women in intimate relationships. The objective of the study was to acquire knowledge about the nature, scope and consequences of physical and sexual violence that women experience from men. This report looks mainly at violence in intimate relationships, but it also includes some information on women not in intimate relationships. The conclusions of the report are based on a telephone survey of a random sample of 3,000 women from Registers Iceland, aged 18-80 years, in all parts of Iceland. A total of 2,050 women answered, so the response level was good, i.e. 68%. In general, the respondents seem to be representative of the population regarding age and geographic area. A flaw in the study is that women of foreign origin who did not speak Icelandic could not be included, as they were unable to answer the questions; these women comprised 4.9% of the sample. Data collection took place from 22 September to 7 December 2008. The survey is based on the International Violence against Women Survey (IVAWS), which was initiated by the United Nations; the questions were developed by an international research team under the leadership of HEUNI (European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, affiliated with the UN). The questions have already been put to women in 11 countries: Australia, Denmark, Costa Rica, the Czech Republic, Greece, Hong Kong, Italy, Mozambique, the Philippines, Poland and Switzerland (Johnson, Ollus and Nevala, 2008). Violence in intimate relationships is a grave international problem, and the fact that an international instrument of measurement was used in the research project gives it more weight, as it is possible to compare the prevalence of male violence against women in Iceland with that of other countries. In the discussion that follows, the results will be discussed and compared to the survey of the Ministry of Justice from 1996 where applicable. 3.1 The extent of violence against women In the survey, 42% of the women reported being subjected to violence at some point since the age of 16, while about 4% reported the violence had occurred in the last 12 months (autumn 2007 to autumn 2008). If the proportion is extrapolated to the total Icelandic population of women aged 18-80 years on 1 December 2008 (Statistics Iceland), this means that 44,000 to 49,000 women in this age group have been subjected to violence of some kind during their lives. About 30% of the women reported physical violence and about 24% reported sexual abuse. These proportions mean that about 30,000 to 35,000 women aged 18-80 years have been subjected to physical violence during their lives, and 24,000 to 29,000 to sexual abuse. Around 13% of the women reported sexual assault in the form of rape or attempted rape (equivalent to 12,000 to 16,000 of all women). Approximately 3% of the women had experienced violence in some form during the past twelve months (autumn 2007 to autumn 2008); this indicates that about 2,600 to 4,400 women were subjected to violence during that time. 3.2 Violence against women in intimate relationships A little over 22% of the women reported experiencing violence in an intimate relationship1 at some point since turning 16. This represents 23,000 to 27,000 women in Iceland experiencing violence in an intimate relationship at some point in their lives. About 20% of the women had been subjected to violence by an intimate partner (about 20,000 Icelandic 1 Violence in intimate relationships comprises violence at the hands of a previous/present spouse, live-in partner or boyfriend.  | 11 women), and about 6% had experienced sexual violence from a partner. The total proportion is higher because some women had experienced both physical and sexual violence. Between 1 and 2% of the women had experienced some form of violence from their partner in the last 12 months, which is equivalent to 1,200-2,300 women being subjected to violence of some sort in an intimate relationship. Relatively more women had experienced violence from a former partner (19%) than a present partner. The women had generally experienced the violence during the relationship (16% had experienced some sort of violence, 14% physical violence and 5% sexual abuse). Slightly less than 3% of the women experienced some sort of violence after the relationship ended, and about 2% both during and after the relationship. The higher number of women who have experienced violence from a former partner (husband, live-in boyfriend or boyfriend) indicates that in most cases women leave an intimate relationship when subjected to violence. Differences in the women’s place of residence or participation in paid employment are not reflected in any statistical difference in prevalence of violence. Differences in women’s earnings are not reflected in prevalence of violence, except for the fact that women who had experienced violence in the previous 12 months had a lower income than those who had not. Of women who have been subjected to violence, a higher proportion are now divorced (51%), as against those who are married (17%) or neither married nor divorced (18%). This reflects the fact that most women who experience violence in intimate relationships seek a divorce or leave the violent relationship. Significantly more women in the age range 25-44 (24%) and 45-64 (24%) have experienced violence than those aged under 25 (17%) and 65-80(11%). This may be due to the fact that women over 25 are more likely to be in a permanent relationship. It also more common for women who have been subjected to violence to have a lower household income than those who have not. When asked about the latest violent incident, it transpired that women who experienced partner violence were most commonly subjected to violence in or near their home (67%). About 75% of the women deemed the incident to be very or quite serious. Most commonly this involved superficial scratches (58%), bruising (36%), bone/nose fractures (11%) or cuts/burns (11%). About 5% of the women were pregnant when the latest violent incident took place, and 15% had used alcohol or drugs to cope with the violence. 3.3 Where do the women seek help? A little over 21% of the women who were subjected to violence had turned to NGOs and agencies which are able to assist women in their situation. Most of them sought help from the Women’s Safe Shelter (6%) and the Stígamót Education and Counselling Centre for Survivors of Sexual Abuse and Violence (4%). The vast majority who sought help at the Women’s Safe Shelter (77%) or Stígamót (65%) found it helpful. While only a minority of the women sought help from NGOs or other agencies, it transpired that the majority (77%) had told someone about the violence. Few women reported the incident to the police (13%) but in 4% of cases the police received information about the violence by other means. A total of 65% of the women who reported the incident to the police were satisfied or very satisfied with how the police handled the case. Half the women thought the police had done all they should in helping them, while 17% of the women felt that the police should have listened better or taken their report more seriously, and 11% would have wanted the perpetrator arrested. 3.4 International comparison - Violence in an intimate relationship The lifetime prevalence and one-year prevalence of partner violence was comparable in Iceland and Denmark. Altogether, 22% of women had experienced some form of violence in both countries; 21% of Icelandic women and 20% of Danish women had been subjected to violence during their lifetime, and in both countries 6% of women had experienced sexual abuse. No Danish or Icelandic women mentioned being subjected to sexual assault in the last 12 months, while 2% of the Icelandic women and 1% of the Danish women reported  | 12 experiencing physical violence in the last year. In both countries a very small proportion of the women reported the violent incident to the police. In Iceland, 8% of the women reported to the police an incident of violence by a current partner, and Danish women did so in 13% of cases. Icelandic women were more likely to report violence by a former partner to the police (14%), while Danish women did so in 10% of the cases. This indicates that the scope of violence cannot be deduced from police reports. 3.5 Extent, nature and consequences of violence against women according to relationship with perpetrator About 10% of women in Iceland had experienced both partner and non-partner violence. About 4% were victims of violence both from current or former partners and others, about 3% had experienced sexual violence, of whom a little over 1% had experienced rape or attempted rape. It is therefore clear that in some cases the subjects are the same women when discussing women who have experienced partner and non-partner violence. When violence against women was considered according to the relationship with the violent man, it transpired that women were more commonly subjected to violence by a former partner (16%) than a present partner (4%), and a higher proportion of women experienced sexual assault by a friend, acquaintance, boss or workmate (11%) than by a family member other than a partner (3.5%). A slightly higher proportion experienced sexual assault (8%) than physical violence (6%) by strangers. The results show that 84% of the incidents of partner violence occurred in or near the home of the woman or the perpetrator, or another person’s home, as against 46% of non-partner violence. It was also common for the latest incident of non-partner violence to have taken place in a bar or club (14.5%), a workplace (13%), and in 8% of cases in the street or an alley. A higher proportion of women in an intimate relationship considered the latest violent incident to be very or quite serious (75%), as against women who experienced non-partner violence (67%). A rather higher proportion of women subjected to violence by a present or former partner reported receiving superficial scratches or grazes (58%) from the latest violent incident, as against 52% of those subjected to non-partner violence. On the other hand, 10% of those who experienced violence from a partner or former partner had experienced head/brain trauma, as against 15% of the women subjected to non-partner violence. Comparison of the nature of violence revealed that the violence inflicted on women in intimate relationships most commonly consisted of pushing, grabbing etc. (65%), while women not in an intimate relationship most commonly reported unwanted sexual touching (54%). A larger proportion of the women not in an intimate relationship with the violent man (67%) believed that he had been under the influence of alcohol, drugs or both during the latest violent incident, than the women who experienced violence from a present or former partner (59%). 3.6 Where do the women seek help? Analysis by relationship with the perpetrator About 90% of the women who experienced non-partner violence did not contact any NGO or agency which can assist women who have experienced violence (as against 21% of the women who had an intimate relationship with the perpetrator). The women sought help from friends (55%), a close family member (51%) or another family member (15%). These proportions are very similar to those for women who are abused by a present or former partner. Despite the fact that 30% of the women regarded the violence (partner or non- partner) they had experienced as a crime, only 13% reported it to the police. The most common reason for not doing so was that the women felt the incident to be too trivial (56% non-partner, 44% partner), and some women dealt with the violence themselves or with the help of friends (15% non-partner, 20.5% partner). Of those who reported the violence to the  | 13 police, only about 34% of the women were satisfied with how the police handled the case (both partner and non-partner incidents). 3.7 International comparison – Non-partner violence Far fewer Icelandic women (29%) than Danish women (37%) had experienced non-partner violence. The difference is manifested especially in physical violence: 16% of the Icelandic women had at some point in their lives been subjected to violence, compared to 22% of Danish women. The difference is less in the case of sexual abuse: about 21% of Icelandic women and 23% of Danish women had at some time been abused sexually by a non- partner. A higher percentage of Icelandic women (19-24%) than Danish women (10-11%) had sustained physical injury during the latest violent incident; and a similar percentage of women, (8-18%) in Iceland and (10-18%) in Denmark had reported the incident to the police.