Sky's the limit; Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA (PDF)

2 018 SKY’S THE LIMIT SKY’S THE LIMIT Growth mindset, students,and schools in PISA   Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 3 © OECD 2021 The OECD conducts the triennial Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a global yardstick for evaluating the quality, equity and efficiency of school systems. PISA regularly measures what 15-year-old students know and can do, and relates it to a wide range of aspects. For the first time in 2018, PISA included a “growth mindset” instrument to gauge students’ beliefs about intelligence malleability. To date, this has been the most global attempt to study growth mindset, surveying some 600 000 students in 78 countries and economies. In September 2020, the OECD, in collaboration with the Yidan Prize Foundation, organised an international 3-day workshop (Annex C) that pursued a two-fold objective: • Raise awareness and understanding of ongoing research and practices on growth mindset through the exchange of information among researchers and practitioners (Days 1 and 2). • Explore and outline future research plans, including a collaborative international research infrastructure that would enhance growth mindset practices and policies (Day 3). This workshop was an opportunity for PISA analysts to present the first preliminary cross-country analysis of growth mindset, and for researchers and practitioners to share the latest growth mindset developments and define the next steps of the research agenda. Capitalising on this event, the OECD has further analysed PISA data, linking growth mindset with learning outcomes, students’ attitudes and well-being, teachers and school practices, and contextual features of educational systems. Here, we present the PISA data and how it relates to the existing growth mindset literature. It is structured around 10 questions, progressively zooming out from the student level, to the teacher, school, and policy levels. Additional case studies summarise some of the workshop presentations or present relevant international practices pertaining to growth mindset development. This report provides insights to teachers and policy makers, and guides future actions towards better teaching practices and students’ experience in schools. OECD Directorate for Education and Skills Preface  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 4 © OECD 2021 Foreword The Yidan Prize was founded on the belief that innovative, brilliant minds can come together to create a better world through education. We are pleased to work in partnership with the OECD and our laureates to help young people everywhere realize their full potential. Our inaugural laureate of the Yidan Prize for Education Research, Professor Carol S. Dweck was recognized for her seminal work on growth mindset. Her research helps us understand how mindset relates to academic performance, aspirations, and well-being. It debunks the notion that ability and intelligence are fixed and shows instead that they can be developed over time. However, the idea of a growth mindset is sometimes misunderstood, even among people familiar with the concept Having a growth mindset is not simply telling students they can achieve any goal, but highlighting the importance of effort and encouraging a willingness to explore new ways to learn. Creating the right environment Learning outcomes are better when mistakes are interpreted as opportunities to learn. Teachers can help learners grasp a deeper understanding of concepts when they try different ways to explain ideas and encourage questions and curiosity. In a growth mindset classroom, abilities and intellect are not judged based on ethnic or cultural backgrounds. It is important to have an empowering environment which instills a growth mindset. So, we brought together education experts from around the world, including our laureates Ms Vicky Colbert and Professor Larry Hedges, to explore what that environment should look like, and how it can be encouraged. We tapped into a wealth of data and analysis on mindset across 78 economies through the 2018 PISA assessment, and learned more about the latest mindset research, as well as inspiring work of changemakers on the ground. During our 3-day workshop held in September 2020, we explored how different cultures interpret growth mindset, how learners from diverse backgrounds might benefit from it and how much of that is influenced by teaching practices and school culture. Working together We are pleased to see closer collaboration among researchers and practitioners. Our hope is that by working together, further research and data collection will help us take on some of the key global challenges. Plans are well underway to include new items on mindset in the 2025 PISA assessment, and for new research by a talented, multidisciplinary team of experts. The implication of this work is enormous. Imagine a world where every child, every teacher and every school believe ability and intelligence are malleable. Where effective, low-cost interventions that cultivate a growth mindset are available everywhere. Where every child learns to love learning, and love taking on new challenges. Where successive generations of young people build societies that face the most difficult challenges with open minds, intelligence, and passion. That is the future we want; it is the future we need. This report offers many insights on mindset to policy makers and educators, and the promise of more to come. Dr. Charles Chen Yidan Founder of the Yidan Prize  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 5 © OECD 2021 Acknowledgements This report was drafted by Pierre Gouëdard with the statistical support of Rodrigo Castaneda Valle. Andreas Schleicher, Yuri Belfali, Miyako Ikeda, and Javier Suarez-Alvarez provided valuable feedback at various stages of the report. The publication was edited by Clara Young, designed and laid out by Della Shin, and Alison Burke co-ordinated the production. This work benefited from the insights and discussions of the participants of the “OECD – Yidan Prize Foundation: Growth Mindset Online Workshop”. Carol Dweck, David Yeager, and Mary Murphy reviewed draft versions and provided invaluable guidance and assistance. The OECD prepared this publication in collaboration with the Yidan Prize Foundation. The OECD thanks Charles Chen Yidan, Edward Ma, Mabel Woo, and Christopher Thomas for their support and suggestions during the elaboration of the publication.   Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 7 © OECD 2021 Table of contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1 . Why are we looking at growth mindset? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 2 . What is a growth mindset? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 3 . What does PISA show about growth mindset between different groups of students? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 4 . What is the relationship between growth mindset and academic performance in PISA? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 5 . How can growth mindset lead to better results? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6 . What is the relationship between growth mindset and students’ well-being in PISA? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 7 . What teacher practices can support a growth mindset? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 8 . What school practices are associated with growth mindset? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 9 . What policies are associated with a growth mindset in education systems? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 10 . What can we expect from a growth mindset intervention? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 NOTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 ANNEX A1. Notes on specific countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 ANNEX A2. Methodology for translating effect sizes into additional months of learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 ANNEX B. List of tables available online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 ANNEX C. OECD – Yidan Prize Foundation: Growth Mindset Online Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 8 © OECD 2021 BOXES Box .1 . What is PISA? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Box 2 . Warning about false growth mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Box 3 . Methodology for measuring growth mindset in PISA 2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Box 4 . Interpreting PISA data with caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Box 5 . Teaching growth mindset in an Asian society, the PASS model in Hong Kong (China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Box 6 . Methodology for building student attitudes indices in PISA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Box 7 . The impact of a growth mindset intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic in Hamburg (Germany) . . . . . . . . .27 Box 8 . Methodology for measuring students’ well-being in PISA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Box 9 . “Academic courage” to develop growth mindset: the EL Education Model (US) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Box 10 . Getting rid of ability labelling or “fixed certainties” in a primary school in Hertfordshire (UK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Box 11 . A pedagogical initiative that fosters growth mindset: the “Escuela Nueva” model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Box 12 . Integrating social-emotional skills into school accountability, the CORE initiative in California (US) . . . . . . . . . . .41 Box 13 . Understanding effect sizes in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 FIGURES Figure 1 . A model of two mindsets by Carol S . Dweck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 Figure 2 . Growth mindset, by student characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Figure 3 . Growth mindset and reading performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 4 . Association between growth mindset and performance, by student characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Figure 5 . Growth mindset and educational expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 6 . Growth mindset and student attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 7 . Student attitudes and average PISA scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Figure 8 . Growth mindset and well-being indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Figure 9 . Growth mindset and life satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Figure 10 . Growth mindset and teacher support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Figure 11 . Growth mindset and adaptive instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 12 . Growth mindset and teacher feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Figure 13 . Growth mindset and academic performance according to teacher practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Figure 14 . Growth mindset and school characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 15 . Growth mindset and school practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 16 . Growth mindset and stratification policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Figure 17 . Growth mindset and academic inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Figure 18 . Standardised effect size of growth mindset in academic performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 TABLES Table 1 . Teachers’ states of mind and their impact on learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Table 2 . Examples of intervention effect sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 9 © OECD 2021 1. Why are we looking at growth mindset? How do we improve students’ learning experience and make educational systems more effective and efficient? Since its creation in 1961, the OECD has collected and published national statistics on education systems to support countries’ evidence-based policy making. At the end of the 1980s, growing concern about the quality and comparability of available data led the OECD to develop the Indicators of Education Systems programme in 1988. In 1992, this programme initiated the now yearly Education at a Glance publication, which grouped indicators under the three following headings at the time: • demographic, economic and social context, • costs, resources and school processes, and • outcomes of education. To enrich the educational outcomes measures, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) was established in 1997. Following an internationally agreed framework, PISA regularly measures what 15 year-old students know and can do, and relates it to a wide range of aspects (Box 1). PISA therefore offers insights on the sources of variation in education performance, whether within a specific educational system, or between countries (McGaw, 2008[1]). Over the past two decades, PISA has become an international reference for comparing quality, equity and efficiency in learning outcomes across countries. It has supported teachers and schools in identifying areas for improvement and international best practices. And, it has provided policy makers with statistical evidence and a benchmark of international policies to support, or contribute to, national reform agendas (Schleicher, 2019[2]). Yet, the last PISA assessment showed that most OECD countries saw virtually no improvement in the performance of their students since PISA was first conducted in 2000. For instance, Japan, Norway, and the United States displayed stable results in mathematics, reading, and sciences while Iceland, Korea, and New Zealand followed declining trends in all three fields assessed in PISA. In the meantime, some countries that spend relatively little on education (Estonia, Canada, Ireland) or students spend comparatively less time in school (Estonia, Finland, Switzerland) have reached high levels of performance (OECD, 2019[3]). In the meantime, there is now an increasing expectation for students to become independent, lifelong and life-wide learners. PISA aims to critically assess students’ competence and not only their content knowledge and routine cognitive skills. For instance, the latest PISA report highlighted that reading is no longer mainly about extracting information from carefully curated and government-approved textbooks but about constructing knowledge, thinking critically and making well-founded judgements from diverse forms of texts and sources (OECD, 2019[3]). The stagnation of some countries’ performances illustrates the difficulty of sustaining systemic improvement in education. It also asks the question of whether sufficient attention was paid to implementing corrective education policies (OECD, 2020[4]), or whether there are some critical determinants for educational success yet to unveil. In fact, many factors can influence educational outcomes, and PISA has progressively extended the scope of its analysis to adopt a more holistic approach to students’ learning  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 10 © OECD 2021 experience. For instance, previous cycles included students’ epistemological beliefs in science (2006), students’ motivation in reading (2009), students’ engagement at school (2012), and students’ overall well-being (2015). Against this backdrop, PISA included a “growth mindset” concept in its last 2018 assessment. Growth mindset has been discussed in the field of psychology over the last few decades. Possibly, it explains why certain students thrive when facing adversity while others languish. In a society with increasing uncertainties, it is inevitable that new challenges are faced which sometimes result in failure. For young people to strive, it is crucial for them to be able to confront difficulties and handle setbacks. During the global COVID crisis, the massive closing of schools heterogeneously impacted more than 1.6 billion students (UNESCO, 2020[5]). While the experience may have been enriching for students who are able to set their own learning goals, elaborate learning strategies, and master their progress, it was devastating for other students who are used to being led by others in their learning and who have little taste for steering their learning on their own (Reimers and Schleicher, 2020[6]; Gouëdard, Pont and Viennet, 2020[7]). The idea that psychology plays a role in students’ learning processes sheds light on the limitations of traditional input-based indicators in predicting the performance of an education system. Focusing on learning processes themselves could provide insight on why some countries invest less time and money on education and yet still perform better than their counterparts. The literature on growth mindset is still under development as researchers identify causal mechanisms using random control trials. The most recent research developments focus on heterogeneity of treatment effects to better understand how a growth mindset may influence various groups of students differently. By surveying some 600 000 students in 78 countries and economies, PISA offers a unique opportunity to contribute to this research as it analyses students, teachers, and schools in different contexts, and proposes to identify significant correlations to guide future research. Box.1 What is PISA? “What do young people know and are able to do?” In response to that question and to the need for internationally comparable evidence on student performance, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) launched the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2000. PISA is a triennial survey of 15-year-old students around the world that assesses the extent to which they have acquired key knowledge and skills essential for full participation in social and economic life. PISA assessments include the core school subjects of reading, mathematics and science, and also innovative areas, such as creative problem solving (2012), collaborative problem solving (2015), global competence (2018) and creative thinking (2021). PISA is used as an assessment tool around the world. It was implemented in 43 countries and economies in the first assessment (32 in 2000 and 11 in 2002), 41 in the second assessment (2003), 57 in the third assessment (2006), 75 in the fourth assessment (65 in 2009 and 10 in 2010), 65 in the fifth assessment (2012) and 72 in the sixth assessment (2015). In 2018, 79 countries and economies participated in PISA, while 78 of them included a question on growth mindset. What does the test measure? In each round of PISA, one subject is tested in detail, taking up nearly half of the total testing time, and an innovative domain is assessed. The main subject in 2018 was reading, as it was in 2000 and 2009. Mathematics was the main subject in 2003 and 2012 and will be again in 2022, while science was the main subject in 2006 and 2015. With this alternating schedule, a thorough analysis of achievement in each of the three core subjects is presented every nine years; an analysis of trends is offered every three years. The assessment In PISA 2018, computer-based tests were used in most countries and economies with assessments lasting a total of two hours. In reading, a multi-stage adaptive approach was applied in computer-based tests whereby students were assigned a block of test items based on their performance in preceding blocks. To gather contextual information, PISA 2018 asked students and the principal of their school to respond to questionnaires. The questionnaire sought information about the students themselves, their attitudes, dispositions and beliefs, their homes, and their school and learning experiences. School principals completed a questionnaire that covered school management and organisation, and the learning environment. The responses to the questionnaires provide both a broader and more nuanced picture of student, school and system performance.  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 11 © OECD 2021 To obtain additional information, some countries/economies decided to distribute a questionnaire to teachers to learn about their training and professional development, their teaching practices and their job satisfaction. In some countries and economies, an optional questionnaire was also distributed to parents, who were asked to provide information on their perceptions of and involvement in their child’s school, their support for learning in the home, and their own engagement with reading and with other cultures. The PISA 2018 Assessment and Analytical Framework (OECD, 2019[8]) presents definitions and more detailed descriptions of the subjects assessed in PISA 2018, and describes the genesis of the questionnaires in detail. The questionnaires from all assessments since PISA’s inception are available on the PISA website: www.pisa.oecd.org. Source: OECD (2019[8]), PISA 2018 Assessment and Analytical Framework, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/b25efab8-en   Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 13 © OECD 2021 2. What is a growth mindset? To help us understand why some people fulfil their potential and others do not, Carol Dweck developed a theory relying on a dual concept: a growth as opposed to a fixed mindset (Dweck, 2006[9]). A growth mindset is the belief that someone’s ability and intelligence can be developed over time. Conversely, a fixed mindset is the belief that individuals are born with certain invariant characteristics, which cannot be altered by experience. As shown in Figure 1, people who believe their talents are innate gifts (a fixed mindset) tend to attach more importance to validating their ability by narrowly pursuing performance goals, for instance, or avoiding challenges as high effort and setbacks are seen as signalling low ability. On the contrary, people who consider their ability to be malleable (a growth mindset) will strive to develop it by setting challenging learning goals. They consider effort an inherent part of the learning process and setbacks to be fruitful experiences to assimilate. People with a growth mindset are characterised by a greater passion for learning and a decreased anxiety about learning linked to their positive conception of failure. This leads them to stretch and expend efforts to reach their full potential whereas people with a fixed mindset are more likely to develop a hunger for approval that restricts them to their comfort zone (Dweck and Yeager, 2019[10]). According to the theory, schools that instil a growth mindset in students may boost their achievement and improve their well-being. Students with a growth mindset are more likely to be resilient, develop learning strategies to achieve complex objectives, are willing to try new learning strategies, capitalise on learning experience, and respond positively to feedback (Yeager and Dweck, 2012[11]). Fostering a growth mindset has been sometimes simplified as merely praising effort or telling students they can achieve any goal they set (Box 2). But it also requires teachers and school leaders to develop specific pedagogies and practices, and create a conducive environment for students to develop and act on this belief (Dweck, 2016[12]). Box 2. Warning about false growth mindset The development of the growth mindset concept over the last 20 years has attracted significant attention among education professionals. However, the democratisation of the concept has been associated with simplification and misconceptions that can limit its scope. Three main misunderstandings are summarised below: • A growth mindset is not a trait. For some, a growth mindset amounts to a fixed personal characteristic such as “being open-minded” or “flexible”, qualities individuals may consider they already have. However, mindsets can be dynamic and most individuals have both growth and fixed mindset components, evolving continuously. Recognising that a growth mindset is a continuous process, a perpetual questioning, is a necessary step to progress in its development. • Growth mindset is not just about praising and rewarding effort. Effort alone is unlikely to maximise personal growth, and praising effort unconditionally may have adverse effects such as creating satisfaction in the absence of progress. Rather, instilling a growth mindset is about rewarding progress and the processes that lead to greater learning such as trying different learning strategies and searching for meaningful feedback.  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 14 © OECD 2021 • Growth mindset development is not the student’s sole responsibility. Some educators consider that telling students they can reach any goal they set is enough to foster a growth mindset. Encouraging students in their endeavours is indeed crucial for them to be able to fulfi ll their potential but mere encouragement can be superfi cial without an appropriate learning environment. Parents, guardians, and educators share a large responsibility in establishing a learning place where students are not continuously judged but one in which they dare to try, are not afraid of making mistakes, and receive constructive feedback from educators who believe in them. Source: Dweck (2016[13]), What having a “growth mindset” actually means, Harvard Business Review. Figure 1. A model of two mindsets by Carol S. Dweck Source: Dweck, C. (2016), Mindset: The New Psychology of Success, Ballantine Books, New York, NY. The bottom line: What is a growth mindset? A growth mindset is the belief that one’s skills and qualities can be cultivated through effort, good strategies, and support from others, as opposed to a fi xed mindset that supposes them to be determined at birth. According to the theory, a person with a growth mindset is more likely to embrace challenges and learn from setbacks to reach greater levels of achievement than a person with a fi xed mindset who avoids challenges and mostly seeks approval. Instilling a growth mindset is not just about praising effort, which can backfi re and generate adverse effects. Rather, it implies rewarding progress and the processes that lead to greater learning. It is a process that requires continuous efforts from students and educators, parents, and guardians.  Sky’s the limit: Growth mindset, students, and schools in PISA 15 © OECD 2021 3. What does PISA show about growth mindset between different groups of students? In PISA 2018, about 600 000 students from 78 countries and economies were surveyed to depict the landscape of growth mindset for 15 year-olds. PISA 2018 asked students whether they agreed (“strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “agree”, or “strongly agree”) with the following statement: “Your intelligence is something about you that you can’t change very much”. Disagreeing with the statement is considered a precursor of a growth mindset, as it is more likely that someone who thinks intelligence can change will challenge him/herself to improve it. As discussed in Box 2, a mindset is not a trait but the result of a continuous and perpetual process. Students who disagreed with the statement are considered to have a stronger growth mindset than students who agreed with it (Box 3) but for the sake of simplicity we refer to them as “presenting a growth/fixed mindset” in this report. A majority of students presented a growth mindset in PISA but some countries lag behind. Almost two-thirds of students disagreed or strongly disagreed that intelligence is something that they cannot change very much on average across OECD countries (Figure 2). In three OECD countries (Estonia, Denmark, and Germany), three-quarters of students or more reported to have a growth mindset. However, in 26 countries and economies, including three OECD countries (Greece, Mexico, and Poland), a majority of students agreed with the fixed mindset statement “Your intelligence is something about you that you can’t change very much”. More than two-thirds of students in the Philippines, Panama, Indonesia, Kosovo, and the Republic of North Macedonia (hereafter North Macedonia) presented a fixed mindset. Girls are slightly more likely to present a growth mindset. In 39 countries and economies, more girls present a growth mindset compared to boys (Figure 2). The most significant discrepancy takes place in Belarus with almost 13 percentage points, but on average across OECD countries, girls are only 3.5 percentage points more likely to have a growth mindset than boys. In only six countries and economies – North Macedonia, Korea, Hong Kong (China), Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang (China) (hereafter “B-S-J-Z [China]”), Macao (China), and Chinese Taipei – boys demonstrated slightly more growth mindset. There is no significant difference between boys and girls in 32 countries and economies. Students from a socio-economically advantaged background presented a growth mindset more often. In almost every education system, socio-economically disadvantaged students were more likely than advantaged students to agree that their intelligence cannot change very much over time (Figure 2). At the system-level, the socio-economic gap in growth mindset is related to the level of equity across all countries/economies. In education systems with greater equity (i.e. student socio-economic status is related to performance to a lesser extent), the socio-economic gap in growth mindset tends to be smaller (correlation coefficient=-0.41 across all countries/economies). The positive association between coming from a socio-economically advantaged background and developing a growth mindset may imply either that advantaged students are offered more opportunities to develop a growth mindset because of appropriate educational resources and a nurturing learning environment, or that advantaged students are more likely to perceive the social desirability of disagreeing with the fixed mindset statement (Box 3). There is no clear pattern between students with or without an immigrant background in terms of growth mindset. In 41 countries and economies, there is no significant difference in terms of growth mindset between immigrant and non-immigrant students (Figure 2). The gap is in favour of immigrant students in 18 countries and economies, and especially in the Republic of Moldova, the Philippines, and the United Arab Emirates. However, in 11 countries and economies, the gap swings in favour of non-immigrant students, particularly in Colombia, Albania, and Iceland.