Studies of the Use of Wilderness for Personal Growth, Therapy (PDF)

Studies of the Use of Wilderness for Personal Growth, Therapy, Education, and Leadership Development: an Annotation and Evaluation by Gregory T. Friese, J. Taylor Pittman, and John C. Hendee. University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center  Page 2 Studies of the Use of Wilderness for Personal growth, Therapy, Education, and Leadership Development: an Annotation and Evaluation by Gregory T. Friese and J. Taylor Pittman, Graduate Research Assistants and John C. Hendee, Director University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Range Sciences Room 18-A Moscow, ID 83844-1144 Telephone: 208-885-2267 FAX: 208-885-2268 email: [email protected] This study was partially funded by the USDA Forest Service; SE Forest Experiment Station; Recreation and Urban Forestry Research Unit Athens, Georgia and Idaho Forest Wildlife and Range Experiment Station USDA McIntire-Stennis Program Moscow, ID September, 1995  Page 3 Abstract Annotations are given for a total of 187 pieces of research based literature, including published material with ideas and facts pertinent to an enhanced understanding of the use of wilderness for personal growth, therapy, education, and leadership development. Documents were also evaluated for the type of publication, the source of the data on which they were based, and the principle research method utilized. Findings tend to support the notion that participation in wilderness experience programs results in positive benefits, such as enhanced self esteem and sense of personal control, and negative results from participation are virtually non-existent. However, this compilation of research based literature suggests that much of the research in the field is reported in non-peer reviewed outlets and “grey” literature, with less than expected in scientific journals and serialized professional outlets. Consistent with this observation is a lack of rigor noted in the sources of data on which the findings are based (heavy to surveys) and the principle research methods used (few experiments or comparative studies). Additionally, there are very few long term studies.  Page 4 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................................................5 ANNOTATED LITERATURE BY METHOD AND AUTHOR..................................................................................................8 EXPERIMENTAL OR QUASI EXPERIMENTAL................................................................................................................................8 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS.............................................................................................................................................................21 INTERNAL COMPARISON ...............................................................................................................................................................24 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS..............................................................................................................................................................41 PROGRAM EVALUATION OR DESCRIPTIVE .................................................................................................................................46 SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION ............................................................................................................................................................70 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH OR KNOWLEDGE...........................................................................................................................79 PROPOSED MODEL OR EXPLANATION........................................................................................................................................85 TEXT BOOK......................................................................................................................................................................................91 UNABLE TO IDENTIFY ...................................................................................................................................................................93 CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................................................................................98 APPENDICES.................................................................................................................................................................................99 I. ADDITIONAL LITERATURE SOURCES......................................................................................................................................99 II. PERMISSION STATEMENTS GRANTED BY PUBLISHERS......................................................................................................103 III. INDICES.....................................................................................................................................................................................104  Page 5 Introduction The use of wilderness for personal growth, therapy, education and leadership development is a widespread activity with literally hundreds of programs in the United States in both the private and public sectors. The presence and alleged increases in numbers of such programs, and their competition for use of public land, including wilderness, raises important questions with policy implications. For example, what do studies say about the benefits of such programs for participants, their sponsoring organizations and the public? What is the extent of research on such uses? Where has research been reported and what indicators exist about its reliability and validity? This annotated bibliography is part of a larger research effort at the University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center to address these and related questions about the use of wilderness for personal growth. This annotated bibliography covers research based literature, including published material with ideas and facts deemed pertinent to an enhanced understanding of the use of wilderness for personal growth, therapy, education and leadership development. The annotations cover material in: scientific journals; conference, convention, symposia and workshop proceedings; published reports and monographs; books and book chapters; theses and dissertations; unpublished papers and reports; and pertinent articles from trade journals and popular magazines that describe research findings, facts and important ideas about use of wilderness for personal growth. More than 200 entries from all of the above sources are annotated or described. To facilitate assessment of the scientific credibility of the publications we coded the type of publication, source of data on which the material is based, and the principle research method utilized. The codings follow the bibliographic information and annotation. Type of Publication: 1. Scientific Journal: Refereed or peer-reviewed, serialized, or periodical publication. 2. Conference Proceedings: Papers presented and published in proceedings of scientific professional conference, conventions, symposia and workshops. 3. Published Reports and Monographs: Description of studies, assessments or inquiries that are separately published and available from sponsoring organizations. 4. Books and Book Chapters: Reference and books on related subjects and chapters therein. 5. Theses and Dissertations: Abstracts of theses and dissertations available from the host institution. 6. Reports or Unpublished Papers: Documents from miscellaneous sources. “Grey” literature. 7. Trade Journals and Popular Magazines: Publications for trade or general audiences that include facts, findings, ideas and opinions on the subject.  Page 6 Source of Data on Which the Contribution is Based: This was coded in the following categories from information in the abstract and/or in the parent document when available. Categories are not mutually exclusive, because some studies used several kinds of data. 1. Questionnaire or Interview Surveys: Studies using mailed or personally delivered questionnaire, telephone or personal interviews. May or may not include standardized tests. 2. Observations: Studies using observations of participants by the researcher, staff or teachers involved in a program under study. 3. Administrative Records: Studies utilizing data in records kept by an agency, institution or organization. 4. Literature Surveys: Studies utilizing information in books or articles. 5. Personal or Professional Knowledge: Descriptive papers based on individual experience, study, ideas, and insight. 6. Participant-Generated Data: Studies utilizing self-reports, participant journals, self- reported behavior and reflections. 7. Combination: Sources including two or more of the above types. 8. Unable to Identify: Literature reporting information not possible to attribute to any of the above sources. Principal Research Method Utilized: for Analysis or Evaluation -- The kinds of analysis/study design or evaluation were coded where possible as follows: 1. Experimental or Quasi Experimental: A treatment and control group were compared. 2. Comparative Analysis: Data on two or more types of programs are compared and analyzed. 3. Internal Comparison: Treatment group only studied (no control) but may include comparison of pre-experience/post-experience data or a series of three or more tests given over time. 4. Qualitative Analysis: Used formal qualitative evaluation procedures such as content analysis or delphi technique. 5. Program Evaluation or Descriptive: Describes and/or evaluates a program’s structure, methods, effects on participants, but with reliance on description, anecdotes, examples etc. 6. Subjective Evaluation: Based on author opinions, impressions and/or personal experience. 7. Evaluation of Research or Knowledge: a work that evaluates the methods, quality, or conclusions of research done about a given subject. 8. Proposed Model or Explanation: A proposed model to explain an observed phenomenon. 9. Unable to Identify: Not possible to attribute to above sources. 10. Books or Reference Books- may include many data sources, and review of methods and findings.  Page 7 Bibliographic Search Methods: In preparing the bibliography, computerized “key word” searches of literature in multiple data sources were utilized, with the computer program Pro-Cite being a principal tool by which data was compiled. The computer search was undertaken in three major university libraries -- the University of Idaho, Washington State University, and the University of Washington- Seattle. The following data bases were searched -- ERIC, PsychLIT, Sociofile, Agricola, Bibliofile, Dissertation Abstracts. We also utilized materials procured from our office library such as books, reprints of articles, copies of reports, etc. We thank the following organizations for their cooperation and approval for use of material for which they hold copyright: American Psychological Association; University Microfilms International; American Society for Training and Development; Association for Experiential Education, and International Sociological Association; along with many publishers. Organization of the Material: The annotations appear alphabetically by senior author and the types of methods used 1)Experimental or Quasi Experimental, 2) Comparative Analysis, 3) Internal Comparison, 4) Qualitative Analysis, 5) Program Evaluation or Descriptive, 6) Subjective Evaluation, 7) Evaluation of Research or Knowledge, 8) Proposed Model or Explanation, 9) Unable to Identify, 10) Books or Reference Books  Page 8 Annotated Literature by Method and Author Experimental or Quasi Experimental - 24 entries Author: Bandoroff, Scott Title: Wilderness Family Therapy: An Innovative Treatment Approach For Problem Youth (Boys) Univ.: University Of South Carolina (0202) Degree: Ph.D. 1992. 297 pp. Note: Abstract: The purpose of this dissertation was to develop a new intervention for the treatment of problem youth by expanding the wilderness therapy model to include the family system. This approach was based on the premise that the problem adolescent is a symptom of a dysfunctional family system. Consequently, in order to achieve effective and lasting change, the family system must be addressed. A systems perspective was adopted and the theoretical literature for family systems and healthy family process were reviewed. This led to the development of a competency-based model for wilderness family therapy. A variety of therapeutic approaches were examined for their contributions to the wilderness family therapy intervention. These included structural family therapy, multiple family therapy, and brief therapy. This study employed a Pretest-Posttest Non-Equivalent Control Group Repeated Measures Design to evaluate the effects of adding a wilderness family therapy component to a standard wilderness program for problem youth. Standardized self report measures were administered to parents and students to examine family functioning, problem behavior, and self concept. The sample in this study consisted of 27 families who participated in a 4-day wilderness family therapy experience immediately following their adolescents' completion of a 21-day survival program. The family program employed a multiple family format and included parents and their adolescents. The comparison group consisted of 39 families who chose not to attend the family program after their adolescents completed the standard expedition. The results of this study were inconclusive. The quantitative analysis supported the efficacy of wilderness therapy for the treatment of problem youth. However, the main hypotheses regarding the Family Wheel program were not supported. Discussion focuses on the reasons for the lack of statistically significant findings in spite of promising tendencies. Qualitative findings indicated that the Family Wheel program did have a strong impact upon the participants. This study demonstrated that wilderness family therapy is a viable option for addressing the family system and has the potential to improve the effectiveness of wilderness interventions for the treatment of problem youth. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Theses or Dissertation Source: Combination Call: DAI-B 53/11, P. 5966, May 1993 Descriptors: Author: Bertolami, Cheryl Title: Effects of a Wilderness Program on Self- Esteem and Locus of Control Orientations of Young Adults. Summary of Thesis. Univ.: Paper presented at the Annual Canadian Conference on the Application of Curriculum Research (6th, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, Nov. 26- 27, 1981). 1981. 11 pp. Note: Reports/technical/research Abstract: Quantitative data and descriptive data (written self-evaluation and journal entries) were collected from young adults participating in a standard 26-day Outward Bound course during a quasi-experimental control group design experiment to determine the degree to which participation in a high risk wilderness program leads to self-discovery, associated with changes such as increased feelings of self-worth and self-reliance. Results showed participation in a high risk wilderness program leads to self-discovery, associated with changes such as increased feelings of self-worth and self-reliance. Results showed significant increases in self-esteem and self-assertion for male and female participants. Females decreased in their belief that events were controlled by powerful others and chance, while males increased in internal locus of control orientations. Results lead to the conclusion that the structured wilderness experience provides an important medium for enhancing the personal  Page 9 development of young adults. Descriptive results revealed components of the process of change associated with participation in a wilderness program. Changes in self-esteem and personal control were attributed to successful accomplishment of difficult activities, supportive group environment and intense personal interactions, wilderness environment, and increased self-awareness which included recognition of both strengths and weaknesses leading to a more realistic self-image. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Conference Proceedings Source: Participant Generated Data Call: Descriptors: self-image/quantitative and qualitative data/Outward Bound/high risk/self-worth/ personal development/young adults Author: Bridgewater, Herbert Grant Title: The Effect Of A Ninety-Five Day Wilderness Camping Program Upon Personality Univ.: Oklahoma State University (0664) Degree: EDD 1981. 129 pp. Note: Downloaded from Dissertation Abstracts Abstract: Scope of Study. Thirty-seven individuals, ranging in age from 18 to 31, enrolled in the wilderness course conducted by the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) were subjects for this study. Jackson's Personality Research Form (PRF) and Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-E Scale) were administered to this group, consisting of 16 males and 21 females, just prior to the expedition and immediately following the conclusion of the course. This study focused upon the effect that a 95 day wilderness camping program had upon personality in the areas of control, work orientation and interpersonal orientation. This study hypothesized no significance in mean differences between pretest and posttest scores of all subjects, and groups formed according to age, sex and educational levels. Hypothesized also was no difference between the wilderness group and norm group in risk-taking and other personality characteristics. Findings and Conclusions. The study supported the hypothesis of no difference between the wilderness group and the norm group in risk- taking and other personality qualities. This study supported the hypothesis of no difference in personality characteristics considered as related to age and educational levels. A paired-t using the mean differences between the scores in the pretest and posttest was applied to each category of personality. Significant differences were found in the areas of control and work orientation for all the subjects. Subjects moved toward the personality characteristic of order in the area of control, and toward endurance and play in the area of work orientation. According to sex, significant differences were found in all personality areas for men and in control and work orientation areas for women. Men moved toward order and internal control, and away from impulsivity in the area of control. Men moved toward endurance and play in the area of work orientation. Men moved away from defendence, exhibition, nurturance and social recognition in the area of interpersonal orientation. Women moved toward order in the area of control and toward play in the area of work orientation. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Theses or Dissertation Source: Participant Generated Data Call: Source: DAI 42/09a, P.3900 Publication No.: AAC8203104 Descriptors: Education/Personality Development/Mental Hygiene (0283)/NOLS/risk- taking/gender Author: Castellano, Thomas C.; Soderstrom, Irina R. Title: Therapeutic wilderness programs and juvenile recidivism: A program evaluation. Univ.: Southern Illinois Univ., Ctr for the Study of Crime, Delinquency & Corrections, Carbondale, IL. 1992. 19-46 pp. Note: Journal-of-Offender-Rehabilitation; 1992 Vol. 17(3-4) Abstract: Assessed the effects of participation in an Outward Bound type of program on the recidivism of 30 juvenile probationers, compared with 30 juvenile probationers who did not participate in the program. Ss' mean age at 1st court referral was 13.9 yrs. Findings indicate a 1-yr. delinquency reduction effect that is confined to the 24 Ss who successfully completed the program. The reduction effect was not found at 2-yr. follow-up. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)  Page 10 Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Scientific Journal Source: Unable to Identify Call: IS: 10509674 Descriptors: juvenile delinquents/recidivism/probation/adolescence Author: Elrod, H. Preston; Minor, Kevin I. Title: Second wave evaluation of a multi-faceted intervention for juvenile court probationers. Univ.: Texas Christian Univ., Ft Worth, 1992. 247-262 pp. Note: International-Journal-of-Offender-Therapy- and-Comparative-Criminology; 1992 Fall Vol. 36(3) Abstract: Compared the effects of a multifaceted intervention for juvenile court probationers with the effects of standard probation services. Approximately half of the 43 Ss (aged 12-17 yrs) were randomly assigned to the intervention program (Project Explore) consisting of outdoor adventure, social skills training, and parent skills training components; the remaining Ss were maintained on standard probation. Although both groups showed substantial reductions in status and criminal offenses over a 2-yr. follow-up, there were no significant differences between the 2 groups. Results suggest that Project Explore was no more effective than probation services that allow caseworkers close and meaningful contact with clients. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved) Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Scientific Journal Source: Questionnaire or Interview Surveys Call: IS: 0306624X Descriptors: social skills training/parent training/juvenile delinquents/school-age children/probation/follow-up studies/childhood/adolescence Author: Ewert, Alan Title: Reducing Levels of Trait Anxiety Through the Application of Wilderness-Based Activities Univ.: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Riverside, CA. July 1990. 105-111 pp. Note: source: USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-193; The Use of Wilderness for Personal Growth, Therapy, and Education; A.T. Easley, Joseph F. Passineau, and B.L. Driver, compilers. Abstract: This study assessed the effect of participation in an outdoor recreation program using wilderness-based activities such as rock-climbing and solo camping. Two groups (treatment and control) were compared using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory developed by Spielberger et al. (1970) Using analysis of covariance to compare the pre, post, and 1-year follow-up scores, the group attending Outward Bound reported significant lower levels of Trait Anxiety than did the control group for the pre-post comparison. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Conference Proceedings Source: Questionnaire or Interview Surveys Call: Descriptors: Outward Bound/rock-climbing/solo camping/State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Author: Ewert, Alan Title: Reduction of Trait Anxiety Through Participation in Outward Bound Univ.: Ohio State Univ. 1988. 107-117 pp. Note: Journal of Leisure Sciences, Vol. 10 Abstract: This study assesses the effect of participation in an outdoor recreation program (i.e. Outward Bound) on levels of trait anxiety. Two groups (treatment and nontreatment) were compared using a modified version of Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. In addition, an assessment was completed by the instructors of the selected outward Bound courses to provide information on the changes in the levels of fear actually observed. Both the treatment and nontreatment groups were queried before the course began, immediately afterward and one year after the course ended. Level of fear or anxiety was chosen as the dependent variable because while much has been written concerning the positive benefits of outdoor programs, such as Outward Bound, there have been relatively few studies conducted on the effect these programs have on anxiety levels. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Scientific Journal Source: Questionnaire or Interview Surveys  Page 11 Call: Descriptors: anxiety/fear/outdoor recreation/Outward Bound/Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Author: Gass, Michael Anthony Title: The Effects Of A Wilderness Orientation Program On Incoming Students To A University Setting (Outward Bound, New Hampshire) Univ.: University Of Colorado At Boulder (0051) Degree: Ph.D. 1986. 307 pp. Note: Downloaded from Dissertation Abstracts Abstract: The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of the wilderness orientation program at the University of New Hampshire entitled the "Summer Fireside Experience Program." To examine the effectiveness of such a program, two other groups--a similar pre-college experience ("Freshman Camp") and a control group--were compared with the Fireside Program on attrition/retention rates, grade point averages, student development behaviors and attitudes toward the University. All three groups were stratified by sex. The subjects were observed for one year to determine the effect that time had on the changes in the dependent variables. ANOVAs, ANCOVAs and effect sizes were performed to determine if any differences existed between groups, sexes or in the interaction between these two variables. Bivariate correlation and multiple regression analyses were also conducted on the pre- study variables available to the researcher. For those ANOVAs that were significant, the Dunn multiple comparison procedure was used to determine group differences. SPSS multiple classification analysis was utilized to determine predicted mean scores for the groups following the ANCOVA analysis. The findings of the study indicate that the Summer Fireside Experience Program had a significant positive effect on retaining students in school after one year and cumulative grade point averages. The program was also found to aid students in the development of autonomy, relationships, interdependence, tolerance, and appropriate relations with the opposite sex. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Theses or Dissertation Source: Administrative Records Call: DAI 47/09A, p.3328 Publication No.: AAC8700350 Descriptors: Education/Outward Bound/wilderness orientation Author: Gaston, Debra Wickstrom Title: An Empirical Investigation of a Wilderness Adventure Program for Teenagers: The Connecticut Wilderness School Univ.: Paper presented at the annual Meeting of the eastern Psychological Association (49th, Washington, DC, March 31, 1978). 1978. 12 pp. Note: reports/research/technical Abstract: Through an intensive 19-day outdoor experience of backpacking, hiking, rock climbing, and whitewater canoeing, the Connecticut Wilderness School has provided a novel therapeutic approach for problem youth referred by a wide variety of state agencies. To determine if participants in this program become more internally oriented, develop a higher level of self confidence, utilize more effective interpersonal coping strategies, and have fewer legal and social difficulties, this empirical investigation studied 135 teenagers (95 males, 40 females), aged 13 to 20, enrolled in the wilderness program and a similar comparison group of teenagers. Referring agencies rated the teenagers on dimensions of problem seriousness, self-awareness, emotional problems, and legal involvement. Demographic and personality pretest measures were collected. A random sub- sample of 72 students were also given a structured interview, assessing coping strategies in problematic interpersonal situations. A multisource follow-up of these students is currently underway. With approximately one half of the follow-up data collected, the following preliminary results have been obtained. Program participants remained more internally oriented 6 months after the course and reported a significantly lower overall frequency of deviant behavior than the comparison group. The teenagers reported positive changes in meeting significantly lower overall frequency of deviant behavior than the comparison group. The teenagers reported positive changes in meeting challenges, self confidence, getting along with parents, grades in school, and controlling temper. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Conference Proceedings Source: Combination Call: ERIC ED178250; ERIC Issue RIEMAR80  Page 12 Descriptors: therapeutic approach/problem youth/self confidence/pretest measures/coping strategies/follow-up data Author: Gillett, Douglas; Thomas, B. Paul; Skok, Richard and T. F. McLaughlin. Title: The effects of wilderness camping and hiking on the self-concept and the environmental attitudes and knowledge of twelfth graders. Univ.: Okanogan Mission Senior Secondary, Kelowna School District, BC, Canada. 1991. 33-44 pp. Note: Journal of Environmental Education; 1991 Spr Vol. 22 (3). Abstract: Determined the effect of a 6-day wilderness experience on self-concept and the knowledge of and attitude toward the environment in 61 12th grade students. The experimental and control groups were pre- and posttested with the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS), the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI), and an environmental attitude and knowledge questionnaire. Analyses indicated a significant increase for the experimental group on 3 of 10 measures of self-concept in the TSCS, on 2 of 5 measures in the SEI, and in environmental knowledge. No change in attitude was found for the participants. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Scientific Journal Source: Questionnaire or Interview Surveys Call: Descriptors: environmental attitudes and knowledge/self-concept/childhood/adolescence/ adulthood Author: Kraus, Ingrid Wiener Title: The Effectiveness Of Wilderness Therapy With Emotionally Disturbed Adolescents Univ.: Georgia State University - College Of Arts And Sciences (0147) 1982. 153 pp. Note: Downloaded from Dissertation Abstracts Abstract: Wilderness therapy has been considered appropriate by many writers for emotionally disturbed adolescents who often tend to be overly aggressive or not very assertive. However, much previous research on the topic is flawed in design or statistical analysis. The purpose of this study is to examine whether adolescents decrease in aggressiveness, increase in assertiveness, or meet individual therapeutic goals through wilderness therapy. Subjects were 91 emotionally disturbed adolescents, ages 11-20, with 67 males and 24 females, 20 black and 71 white. Groups of subjects were assigned as randomly as possible to experimental and control conditions so that 50 subjects were experimental and 41 were controls. The Outdoor Therapeutic Program (OTP) in North Georgia, a state-supported agency, was chosen as prototypical of short-term wilderness therapy programs. All subjects eventually participated in a 10-day wilderness trip at OTP. However, experimental subjects were tested before and after a trip on the Interpersonal Behavior Survey (IBS) (Mauger & Adkinson, 1980), a test of aggressiveness and assertiveness, while control subjects were tested twice before a trip occurred. Experimental and control subjects were also evaluated on individual therapeutic goals according to Goal Attainment Scaling methodology (Kiresuk & Sherman, 1968), with experimental subjects evaluated after a trip and control subjects evaluated before a trip. Results showed that experimental subjects surpassed control subjects on goals attained at p = .013. With few exceptions, hypotheses that adolescents would decline in aggressiveness or increase in assertiveness as a result of wilderness therapy were not supported. A hypothesis that IBS change and goal attainment would be correlated was also not supported. Thus, wilderness therapy aids emotionally disturbed adolescents in reaching therapeutic goals. A 10-day trip may not, however, be long enough to change basic interpersonal styles of aggressiveness and assertiveness. These results illustrate the value of the goal-setting approach to outcome research. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Theses or Dissertation Source: Questionnaire or Interview Surveys Call: DAI 44/05B, p.1597 Publication No.: AAC8321362 Descriptors: Psychology/wilderness therapy/disturbed adolescents/behavior/therapy Author: Lambert, Michael J.; John F. Segger; John S. Staley; Berkley Spencer; Douglas Nelson. Title: Reported Self-Concept and Self-Actualizing Value changes As A Function of Academic Classes With Wilderness Experience  Page 13 Univ.: Brigham Young Univ. 1978. 1033-1040 pp. Note: Perceptual and Motor Skills (Journal), Vol. 46. Abstract: This study examined changes in self- perception and actualizing values as a function of participation in college classes which included wilderness experience. Two separate wilderness programs were investigated: the first emphasized intense, sustained, physical and mental challenges and learning how to live off an inhospitable environment; the second emphasized traditional laboratory group activities in a wilderness retreat. Changes in students taking these courses were contrasted with changes in college students registered for either a lecture-type course or a course with lectures and time-limited, structured, experiential learning. Positive changes in self-concept as measured by the Tennessee Self-concept Scale were apparent in participants who had either wilderness program. Control subjects did not show significant gains. Changes from pre-to-post-course were not found on the Personal Orientation Inventory. While limitations must be noted, the college courses which included a wilderness experience had a positive impact on participants. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Scientific Journal Source: Questionnaire or Interview Surveys Call: Descriptors: self perception/self actualization/university Author: Mang, Marlis Title: The Restorative Effects Of Wilderness Backpacking (Field Research, Quasi-Experiment, Environments) Univ.: University Of California, Irvine (0030) Degree: PH.D. 1984. 193 pp. Note: Downloaded from Dissertation Abstracts Abstract: The dissertation uses a quasi-experimental design to examine restorative effects of wilderness backpacking. Three groups are compared: One group consists of twenty-five individuals who participated in backpacking trips in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California (backpacking group), another group contains eighteen individuals who were on non- wilderness vacations (vacation control group), while the third group consists of twenty-five individuals who were involved in the usual business of everyday life. Persons in all three groups are experienced backpackers. The design includes pre- and posttesting and a three-week follow-up. The time lapse between pre- and posttesting varied between four days and a week. Self-report and behavioral measures were administered to assess psychological restoration on emotional, mental, and spiritual levels. Attitudes toward wilderness and physical fitness were assessed as a partial check on confounding variables. The data provide suggestive evidence for restorative effects of wilderness backpacking. Of the eight indicators of emotional well-being, the overall happiness scale showed the hypothesized significant time-by-group interaction effect. Several other self- report measures while not significant were in the predicted direction. While the three groups did not differ at pre- and posttesting, the backpacking group had significantly higher overall happiness at the three-week follow-up. Results also indicate mental restoration effects. Proofreading was used as an indicator of attentiveness and concentration. While both baseline and vacation control groups showed a decline in proofreading performance from pre- to posttesting, the backpacking group demonstrated increased proofreading performance at posttesting. The data lend support to the position of wilderness as a restorative environment. No changes were found for a frustration tolerance task, that immediately followed proofreading. Aftereffects of the proofreading task are discussed as a plausible explanation for the lack of group differences on the second aftereffect task. The data did not support the hypothesis of spiritual restoration. Characteristics of the posttesting situation may have masked effects on these self- report scales. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Theses or Dissertation Source: Participant Generated Data Call: DAI 45/09B, p.3057 Publication No.: AAC8427815 Descriptors: Psychology/backpacking/personal growth Author: Martin, Peter Blaine Title: The Effect Of An Outdoor Adventure Program On Group Cohesion And Change In Self-Concept Univ.: Boston College (0016) Degree: PH.D. 1983. 194 pp.  Page 14 Note: Downloaded from Dissertation Abstracts Abstract: Within the context of an outdoor adventure group, this study focuses on the effect of interpersonal needs and compatibilities on group cohesion and change in self-concept, as well as the effect of group cohesion and change in self-concept, as well as the effect of group cohesion on change in self-concept. There were three sources of data: an experimental group, a comparison group, and the leaders of the wilderness groups. The experimental group and the comparison group consisted of students from two Upward Bound programs. The instruments used were the Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS), the FIRO-F, the FIRO-B, and the Kelly- Baer Rating Scale. During the pre-tests, the experimental group took the first three instruments; the comparison group took the TSCS, and the leaders took the FIRO scales. When the experimental group finished its course, it took the TSCS, the Kelly-Baer Scale, and subjective questionnaires; the comparison group retook the TSCS. The first step in the statistical analysis involved a comparison of change in self-concept between the experimental group and the comparison group. To do this, a t-test for uncorrelated means was performed on the self-concept difference scores. The second step involved a series of correlational matrices: (UNFORMATTED TABLE FOLLOWS) Interpersonal Needs Member-Member Compatibility by Group Cohesion Member-Leader Compatibility: Interpersonal Needs Member-Member Compatibility Member-Leader Compatibility by Change in Self-Concept Kelly-Baer Rating Scale Group Cohesion (TABLE ENDS) In order to reduce the number of variables, however, and to render the data more meaningful, the FIRO-B and FIRO-F scores were combined when looking at both interpersonal needs and compatibilities. The results indicate that the wilderness experience has a positive impact on self-esteem. However, only two factors contributing to this change were found: reciprocal compatibility for affection among members, and total reciprocal compatibility among members. In the search for factors correlated positively with group cohesion, eight were found: (a) Interchange a reciprocal compatibility for affection between members and leaders; (b) Total compatibility between members and leaders, and (c) Five measures of the FIRO tests (Inclusion, Affection, Expressed, Wanted, and Total). Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Theses or Dissertation Source: Questionnaire or Interview Surveys Call: DAI 44/05B, p.1639 Publication No.: AAC8320352 Descriptors: Psychology/self-concept/group/self- esteem Author: Minor, Kevin I.; Elrod, H. Preston Title: The effects of a multi-faceted intervention on the offense activities of juvenile probationers. Univ.: Southwest Missouri State Univ., Springfield, MO. 1990. 87-108 pp. Note: Journal-of-Offender-Counseling,-Services-and- Rehabilitation; 1990 Vol. 15(2). Abstract: A 3-mo. intervention to expand juvenile court services to include job preparation, outdoor experiential, and family components did not significantly reduce offense activities during an 18- mo. follow-up of 22 probationers (12-17 yrs old), compared with traditional probation supervision of 23 controls. The intervention sought to enhance integration into conventional social institutions and to transform the negative influence of delinquent peers. Self-reported delinquency and official offense data were examined in a 2-factor (intervention and case status) experimental pretest-posttest design. The only significant result was that some experimental Ss with extensive backgrounds of crime displayed fewer offenses than did matched controls. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved) Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Scientific Journal Source: Combination Call: IS: 01956116 Descriptors: occupational guidance/family/juvenile delinquents/adjudication/follow-up studies/school age children/adolescence Author: Munn, Walter Daniel Title: The Impact Of A Brief Therapeutic Wilderness Experience On Locus Of Control And Self-Esteem Of Handicapped Adolescents Univ.: University Of Northern Colorado (0161)  Page 15 Degree: EDD 1983. 101 pp. Note: Downloaded from Dissertation Abstracts Abstract: Literature has given general support for the use of experiential education and wilderness programs to foster attitudinal and behavioral change in youth. Methodological and procedural improvements are needed in the area to test theoretical predictions and to clarify vague and sometimes conflictual findings. The present study involved an intensive two-day therapeutic wilderness program with handicapped adolescents. The study questioned whether or not a brief wilderness experience would produce a significant impact on locus of control and self-esteem. The influence of variables such as duration, intensity, leader training, program content and implementation was considered an important aspect of the problem of how to produce an impact. A pre-post and follow-up control group design was utilized. Although no overall treatment effects were found as a result of MANOVA procedure, univariate analysis resulted in a significant interactional effect on the variable of locus of control. The findings indicated that the brief intensive wilderness experience influenced locus of control in a positive direction. However, the effect on self-esteem was neutral. Duration of the wilderness program was suggested as an essential variable for influencing self-esteem. Recommendations were made for the use of wilderness therapy programs and modifications for further research. These recommendations included increasing the duration of the wilderness outing or extending it through repeated outings and related in- school activities. Partial support was given for the use of wilderness therapy activities in special education programs. Method: Experimental or Quasi Experimental Publication Type: Theses or Dissertation Source: Unable to Identify Call: DAI 45/01B, p.340 Publication No.: AAC8408151 Descriptors: Psychology (0621)/self-esteem/duration Author: Plouffe, Mary Elizabeth Mahoney Title: A Longitudinal Analysis Of The Personality And Behavioral Effects Of Participation In The Connecticut Wilderness School: A Program For Delinquent And Pre- Delinquent Youth Univ.: The University Of Connecticut (0056) Degree: PH.D. 1981. 85 pp. Note: Downloaded from Dissertation Abstracts Abstract: Six months after completing the Connecticut Wilderness School program for delinquent and pre-delinquent youth, 104 graduates were contacted to assess personality and behavioral changes. A multi-source design was used, collecting data from agency, parent, and Wilderness School staff, as well as from subject self-report questionnaires. These data were combined with data collected before and after the nineteen day course (Gaston 1978). Data were collected on 92% of the subject sample. A post-hoc only control sample of 50 subjects was obtained at the time of follow-up. Self-Report measures included the Nowicki- Strickland Internal/External Locus of Control(I/E), a Self-Rating Scale assessing self-confidence and self- image, and a Deviant Behavior Scale assessing frequency of deviant behavior in school, home, and community settings. A structured interview and a measure assessing the amount of change in different areas were also administered. Agency data included the Peterson Quay Behavior Problem Checklist and a questionnaire including demographic data and behavioral ratings. Parents completed a questionnaire regarding changes in personality, attitudes, and behavior, and Wilderness School staff maintained records regarding the amount and type of follow-up contact. Multiple analyses indicated that treated youngsters were more internal (locus of control), and more positive in their self-rating than control subjects. Treated youngsters also exhibited significantly less deviant behavior and fewer arrests than controls. Age was related to internality increases, and a significant sex effect was found on the deviant behavior scale, indicating females to be less deviant across groups than males. Agency Ratings on the Behavior Problem Checklist indicated less problem behavior for the treated group overall, with significant between-group differences on total score, and Personality Problem, Inadequacy/Immaturity, and Conduct Problem subscales. No differences were found on the Socialized Delinquency subscale. Longitudinal Analyses revealed no regression in internality scores from post-course to follow-up, and low correlations between I/E and behavioral measures. Some correlation of behavior and self-rating was found. Repeated measures analyses of variance resulted in significant trials effects for I/E, and for the Behavior Problem Checklist, including all four subscales. A sex main effect was