The Link Between Self-esteem and Implicit Malleability Theories (PDF)

R unning he a d: SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 1 T he L ink B e t w e e n Se lf - e s t e e m a nd I mplic it M a lle a bilit y T he o r ie s : a M e t a - a na ly s is Ja me s H. C o nig r a v e 1 , E mma L . B r a ds ha w 2 , E mma K . D e v ine 2 , Jo s e ph C ia r r o c hi2 , & B a lj inde r K . Sa hdr a 2 1 T he Univ e r s it y o f Sy dne y 2 I ns t it ut e f o r P o s it iv e P s y c ho lo g y a nd E duc a t io n Aut ho r No t e C o r r e s po nde nc e c o nc e r ning t his a r t ic le s ho uld be a ddr e s s e d t o Ja me s H. C o nig r a v e , L e v e l 6 , K ing G e o r g e V B uilding , C a mpe r do w n NSW 2 0 0 6 , AUST R AL I A. E - ma il: Ja me s .c o nig r a v e @ s y dne y .e du.a u  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 2 Abs t r a c t E x pe r ime nt s s ug g e s t t ha t pe o ple w ho be lie v e t he ir a t t r ibut e s a r e ma lle a ble s ho uld be mo r e r e s ilie nt in t he f a c e o f f a ilur e . D o e s t his me a n t ha t inc r e me nt a l t he o r is t s ma int a in hig he r s e lf - e s t e e m? We e x plo r e t his q ue s t io n me t a - a na ly t ic a lly . We s y nt he s is e d r e s e a r c h f r o m 3 4 s t udie s t o s ho w t ha t t he r e la t io ns hip be t w e e n s e lf - e s t e e m a nd inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s is g e ne r a lly w e a k . We pe r f o r me d mo de r a t io n a na ly s is t o ide nt if y me t ho d, a nd s a mple f e a t ur e s w hic h pr e dic t e ff e c t s iz e ma g nit ude . O f no t e , implic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s w e r e mo r e s t r o ng ly r e la t e d t o s e lf - e s t e e m w he n s c a le s w e r e s e lf - , r a t he r t ha n o t he r - f o c us e d, a nd w he n inc r e me nt a l, r a t he r t ha n e nt it y it e ms w e r e us e d. K eywor ds: Se lf - e s t e e m, I mplic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s , C o r r e la t io n, M e t a - a na ly s is Wo r d c o unt : 2 ,5 8 5  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 3 T he L ink B e t w e e n Se lf - e s t e e m a nd I mplic it M a lle a bilit y T he o r ie s : a M e t a - a na ly s is Int r o duct i o n P r io r a ut ho r s ha v e a r g ue d t ha t inc r e me nt a l a nd e nt it y t he o r ie s o f t he s e lf ma y c o ns t it ut e t w o s e lf - s y s t e ms . I nc r e me nt a l t he o r is t s ( t ho s e w ho be lie v e t he ir t r a it s a r e ma lle a ble ) a r e mo r e lik e ly t o dr a w s e lf - w o r t h f r o m le a r ning . I n c o nt r a s t , it ha s be e n a r g ue d t ha t t he s e lf - e s t e e m o f e nt it y t he o r is t s is mo r e lik e ly t o be ba s e d o n pe r f o r ma nc e . D e s pit e t he s e c la ims , t he link be t w e e n s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s ha s no t be e n t he pr ima r y f o c us o f muc h r e s e a r c h. I n t his pa pe r w e e x plo r e t he r e la t io ns hip be t w e e n implic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m me t a - a na ly t ic a lly . E x pe r ime nt a l r e s e a r c h w o uld s ug g e s t t ha t by pr e v e nt ing t r a it a t t r ibut io ns , inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s c o uld buff e r s e lf - e s t e e m f r o m f a ilur e s ( L e v y , St r o e s s ne r , & D w e c k , 1 9 9 8 ) . I t is t he r e f o r e r e a s o na ble t o a s s ume t ha t s e lf - e s t e e m a nd inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s w o uld be po s it iv e ly link e d. While t he c o r r e la t io n be t w e e n t he s e t w o v a r ia ble s ha s be e n r e po r t e d in mult iple s t udie s , t he ma g nit ude o f t his r e la t io ns hip, a nd t he de g r e e o f he t e r o g e ne it y ha s no t be e n e x plo r e d me t a - a na ly t ic a lly . O ne po t e nt ia l s o ur c e o f he t e r o g e ne it y ma y be t he do ma in in w hic h s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s a r e me a s ur e d. B o t h s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s a r e c o ns ide r e d t o be do ma in s pe c ific . P r io r r e s e a r c h ha s s ho w n t ha t w he n t he do ma in o f s e lf - e s t e e m a nd t he do ma in o f a n o ut c o me a r e ma t c he d, t he r e la t io ns hip be t w e e n t he m t e nds t o be s t r o ng e r ( M a r s h & C r a v e n, 2 0 0 6 ) . T his ma y pa r t ly e x pla in a ny he t e r o g e ne it y in r e po r t e d e ff e c t s iz e s . I f t he do ma in s pe c ific it y t he o r y ho lds f o r bo t h implic it t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m, t he ir hie r a r c hic a l s t r uc t ur e s ma y be s imila r . I t is no t c le a r w he t he r e nt it y a nd inc r e me nt a l s t a t e me nt s f o r m t w o e nds o n a bipo la r s c a le , o r ma p o nt o s e pa r a t e f a c t o r s . T he o r ig ina l implic it t he o r y s c a le s us e d o nly e nt it y it e ms  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 4 ( D w e c k & L e g g e t t , 1 9 8 8 ) , t ha t is , it e ms w he r e r e s po nde nt s r a t e d a g r e e me nt t o s t a t e me nt s s ug g e s t ing t he ir a t t r ibut e s a r e fix e d. Fo r e x a mple , “ Yo u ha v e a c e r t a in a mo unt o f int e llig e nc e a nd y o u r e a lly c a n’t do muc h t o c ha ng e it ” . O nly e nt it y it e ms w e r e us e d be c a us e r e po r t s f r o m e a r lie r s t udie s s ug g e s t e d t ha t pa r t ic ipa nt s w ho e ndo r s e d e nt it y t he o r ie s in int e r v ie w s w o uld r e s po nd w it h hig h le v e ls o f a g r e e me nt t o inc r e me nt a l it e ms ( D w e c k , C hiu, & Ho ng , 1 9 9 5 ) . D w e c k e t a l. ( 1 9 9 5 ) a r g ue d t ha t inc r e me nt a l s t a t e me nt s w e r e s o c o mpe lling , t ha t pa r t ic ipa nt s w o uld a g r e e w it h t he m, w he t he r o r no t t he y a c t ua lly c o r r e s po nde d t o t he ir implic it ly he ld be lie f s . I t is po s s ible , a s D w e c k e t a l. ( 1 9 9 5 ) s ug g e s t s , t ha t t his la c k o f a c o r r e la t io n is due t o ins e ns it iv e r e s po nding t o inc r e me nt a l it e ms . Ho w e v e r , a n a lt e r na t iv e e x pla na t io n mig ht be t ha t inc r e me nt a l a nd e nt it y be lie f s do no t e x is t o n t he s a me c o nt inuum a nd t he r e f o r e s ho uld be t r e a t e d a s s e pa r a t e f a c t o r s . P e r ha ps , inc r e me nt a l it e ms a nd e nt it y it e ms t a p int o diff e r e nt a s pe c t s o f pe r c e iv e d ma lle a bilit y a nd s o it is po s s ible t o ha v e bo t h hig h e nt it y a nd inc r e me nt a l be lie f s in a s ing le do ma in. Fo r ins t a nc e o ne mig ht be lie v e t ha t a t t r ibut e s a r e influe nc e d by bo t h na t ur e ( g e ne t ic s ) a nd nur t ur e ( e x pe r ie nc e s ) a nd s o w o uld a ls o e ndo r s e inc r e me nt a l a nd e nt it y it e ms s imult a ne o us ly t o s o me de g r e e . As s uc h, t he a s s umpt io n t ha t s c a le s w hic h us e e x c lus iv e ly e nt it y it e ms t a p int o pe o ple ’s inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s r e q uir e s s c r ut iny . T he f r a me o f r e f e r e nc e us e d in implic it ma lle a bilit y ins t r ume nt s a ls o r e q uir e s s c r ut iny . I mplic it t he o r y ins t r ume nt s t e nd t o e mplo y it e ms w hic h r e f e r e nc e pe o ple g e ne r a lly , f o r e x a mple , “ y o u ha v e a c e r t a in a mo unt o f int e llig e nc e a nd y o u r e a lly c a n’t do muc h t o c ha ng e it ” ( D w e c k e t a l., 1 9 9 5 ) . Ho w e v e r it is po s s ible t ha t pe o ple ho ld diff e r e nt t he o r ie s f o r t he ms e lv e s t ha n t he y do f o r o t he r s . So me o ne mig ht f e e l t ha t w hile mo s t pe o ple c a n impr o v e t he ir ma t he ma t ic a l a bilit y , t he r e is s o me t hing s pe c ia l a bo ut t he m t ha t ma k e s t he m a lo s t c a us e . T o a ddr e s s t his , D e C a s t e lla e t a l. ( 2 0 1 3 a ) mo difie d t he f o r ma t o f implic it t he o r y me a s ur e s t o ma k e t he m s e lf - f o c us e d, e .g ., “ No ma t t e r ho w ha r d I t r y , I c a n’t r e a lly c ha ng e t he e mo t io ns t ha t I ha v e ” . D e C a s t e lla a nd B y r ne ( 2 0 1 5 ) c la im t ha t t he s e s e lf - f o c us e d s c a le s t a p int o t he c o ns t r uc t mo r e e ff e c t iv e ly . I f t his is t r ue , t he r e f e r e nc e po int o f implic it t he o r y  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 5 s c a le s ( s e lf v s o t he r ) s ho uld mo de r a t e e ff e c t s iz e s me t a - a na ly t ic a lly . R e s e a r ch A i m s T his pa pe r a ims t o c o ns o lida t e r e s e a r c h o n bo t h s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s us ing a me t a - a na ly t ic s y nt he s is o f pr io r r e s e a r c h. T he pr ima r y a im is t o me a s ur e t he s t r e ng t h o f t he r e la t io ns hip be t w e e n implic it t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m. T he s e c o nda r y a im is t o ide nt if y mo de r a t o r s o f t he link be t w e e n s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s . R e s e a r ch Q ue s t i o ns a nd H y po t he s e s R e s e a r ch Q ue s t i o n. Wha t is t he ma g nit ude o f t he a s s o c ia t io n be t w e e n inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m a c r o s s a ll do ma ins o f bo t h c o ns t r uc t s ( f o r e x a mple , a c a de mic , phy s ic a l, a nd c r e a t iv e do ma ins ) ? H y po t he s i s 1 . I nc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s w ill be po s it iv e ly r e la t e d t o bo t h s e lf - e s t e e m a nd s e lf - c o nc e pt . B y r e duc ing t r a it a t t r ibut io ns ( L e v y e t a l., 1 9 9 8 ) , inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s s ho uld ma k e f a ilur e s le s s lik e ly t o a ff e c t s e lf - ima g e r e s ult ing in hig he r s e lf - e s t e e m/ s e lf - c o nc e pt . H y po t he s i s 2 . I nc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s w ill be mo s t s t r o ng ly r e la t e d t o s e lf - e s t e e m w he n t he do ma ins o f e a c h s c a le a r e s imila r . Fo r e x a mple , inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s o f int e llig e nc e s ho uld be mo r e s t r o ng ly r e la t e d t o a c a de mic s e lf - c o nc e pt s , t ha n phy s ic a l s e lf - c o nc e pt s o r s e lf - e s t e e m g e ne r a lly . H y po t he s i s 3 . C o r r e la t io ns be t w e e n inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - c o nc e pt w ill be s t r o ng e r w he n implic it t he o r y s c a le s r e f e r e nc e t he s e lf r a t he r t ha n pe o ple g e ne r a lly . Sc a le s w hic h r e f e r t o pe o ple g e ne r a lly w ill no t a de q ua t e ly r e fle c t pe r c e pt io ns o f s e lf - ma lle a bilit y . P e o ple ma y f e e l t he ir a t t r ibut e s a r e mo r e o r le s s ma lle a ble t ha n o t he r pe o ple .  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 6 M e t ho ds E l i g i bi l i t y cr i t e r i a St udie s w e r e inc lude d w hic h ha d q ua nt it a t iv e me a s ur e s , in a ny do ma in, o f e it he r s e lf - e s t e e m ( inc luding s e lf - c o nc e pt s c a le s ) o r implic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s a s de s c r ibe d by D w e c k e t a l. ( 1 9 9 5 ) . St udie s in w hic h f ull t e x t s in E ng lis h c o uld no t be o bt a ine d w e r e e x c lude d t o e ns ur e da t a e x t r a c t io n w a s a c c ur a t e . O nly o r ig ina l r e s e a r c h w a s e lig ible f o r inc lus io n. St udie s w e r e a c c e pt e d ir r e s pe c t iv e o f c o ho r t f e a t ur e s ( e .g . a g e , g e nde r , s o c io e c o no mic s t a t us ) , w hic h w e r e a s s e s s e d a s mo de r a t o r s . Fo ur da t a ba s e s w e r e us e d f o r finding e lig ible pa pe r s : E R I C , P s y c hI NFO , Sc o pus a nd We b o f Sc ie nc e . Addit io na l pa pe r s w e r e s o ur c e d f r o m G o o g le Sc ho la r a nd inc lude d o n a dv ic e f r o m r e s e a r c he r s in t he r e le v a nt fie lds . D e v e lo pme nt o f k e y w o r ds Se a r ch t e r m s I mplic it t he o r ie s w a s r e pr e s e nt e d by v a r ia t io ns o f t he t e r m a s f o llo w s : “ implic it t he o r y ” “ inc r e me nt a l t he o r is t ” , “ e nt it y t he o r is t ” , “ fix e d minds e t ” , o r “ g r o w t h minds e t ” . “ D w e c k ” w a s a ls o us e d a s a k e y w o r d f o r implic it t he o r ie s due t o he r pr o mine nc e in t he fie ld o f r e s e a r c h ( D w e c k , 2 0 0 0 ) . P a pe r s w it h s e lf - e s t e e m w e r e lo c a t e d w it h v a r ia nt s o f t he f o llo w ing k e y w o r ds : “ s e lf - e s t e e m” , “ s e lf - c o nc e pt ” , “ s e lf - pe r c e pt io n” , “ s e lf - a ppr a is a l” , “ s e lf - ima g e ” , “ s e lf - w o r t h” , o r “ s e lf - a t t r ibut io ns ” . P a pe r s w e r e r e t ur ne d t ha t f e a t ur e d a t le a s t o ne o f t he s e k e y w o r ds f r o m bo t h t he implic it t he o r y a nd s e lf - e s t e e m s e t .  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 7 St udy s cr e e ni ng E lig ible s t udie s w e r e impo r t e d int o a n E ndno t e libr a r y a nd duplic a t e s w e r e r e mo v e d. We s c r e e ne d t it le s a nd a bs t r a c t s w it h t he a s s is t a nc e o f t w o o t he r r e s e a r c he r s . R e c o r ds w e r e r e mo v e d w he r e a ll r e s e a r c he r s una nimo us ly a g r e e d s t udie s did no t me e t e lig ibilit y c r it e r ia . Full t e x t s w e r e o bt a ine d f o r a ll r e ma ining r e c o r ds a nd t he n s c r e e ne d f o r e lig ibilit y . I n c a s e s o f dis a g r e e me nt s a bo ut t he e lig ibilit y o f c e r t a in s t udie s , r e s e a r c he r s dis c us s e d t he s e c a s e s unt il a una nimo us de c is io n c o uld be ma de . D a t a e x t r a ct i o n D a t a w e r e e x t r a c t e d f r o m t he r e ma ining s t udie s int o a n E x c e l s pr e a ds he e t . E a c h r o w r e pr e s e nt e d a n e ff e c t s iz e . I n ins t a nc e s w he r e mult iple e ff e c t s iz e s w e r e pr e s e nt in a s ing le s t udy , t he s e e ff e c t s w e r e input t e d o n s e pa r a t e d r o w s , a nd w e r e link e d by s t udy I D . I n t his me t a - a na ly s is , s t udie s o nly pr e s e nt e d e ff e c t s iz e s a s P e a r s o n’s r . Ac c o r ding ly , no e ff e c t s iz e s ne e de d t o be ma t he ma t ic a lly t r a ns f o r me d. B e y o nd e ff e c t s iz e , o t he r inf o r ma t io n w a s e x t r a c t e d a bo ut e a c h s t udy inc luding public a t io n y e a r , c o ho r t s o c io e c o no mic s t a t us , c o ho r t g e nde r r a t io , me a n a g e o f s ubj e c t s , t he do ma in o f t he s e lf - c o nc e pt s c a le , w hic h s e lf - c o nc e pt s c a le w a s us e d, t he implic it t he o r y do ma in, w hic h implic it t he o r y s c a le w a s us e d, w he t he r t he implic it t he o r y s c a le r e f e r e nc e d t he s e lf o r pe o ple g e ne r a lly , t he a lpha s o f e a c h s c a le , a nd fina lly , t he e ff e c t s iz e . R e c o r ds w e r e e x t r a c t e d mid- 2 0 1 7 . I f c o r r e la t io ns c o uld no t be e x t r a c t e d, t he a ut ho r s w e r e c o nt a c t e d w it h a r e q ue s t f o r t he e ff e c t s iz e . A na l y s i s I n me t a - a na ly s e s e ff e c t s iz e s a r e a s s ume d t o be inde pe nde nt . Ho w e v e r , s ing le s t udie s o f t e n r e po r t mult iple e ff e c t s iz e s . T he s e e ff e c t s a r e lik e ly t o c lus t e r due t o c o mmo n me t ho do lo g ie s , a nd s a mple f e a t ur e s . T o c o nt r o l f o r t he de pe nde nc e o f e ff e c t s iz e s , w e us e  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 8 mult i- le v e l me t a - a na ly t ic a lly s t r uc t ur a l e q ua t io n mo de lling ( M ASE M ) ( C he ung , 2 0 1 4 b) . T his e na ble s he t e r o g e ne it y t o be me a s ur e d a nd c o nt r o lle d f o r be t w e e n ( R 2 ( 2 ) ) , a nd w it hin s t udie s ( R 2 ( 3 ) ) . All a na ly s e s w e r e pe r f o r me d in R ( R C o r e T e a m, 2 0 1 9 ) . T he pa c k a g e “ me t a f o r ” w a s us e d t o c a lc ula t e e ff e c t s iz e s ( Vie c ht ba ue r , 2 0 1 0 ) . T he pa c k a g e “ ms e mt o o ls ” w a s us e d t o s pe c if y me t a - a na ly t ic mo de ls , a nd t o pr e pa r e t a ble s a nd fig ur e s ( C o nig r a v e , 2 0 1 9 ) . T he ms e mt o o ls pa c k a g e is de pe nde nt o n “ me t a SE M ” w hic h w a s us e d f o r t he c o mput a t io n o f a ll me t a - a na ly t ic mo de ls ( C he ung , 2 0 1 4 a ) . T his pa pe r w a s pr o duc e d w it h “ pa pa j a ” a nd “ r ma r k do w n” t o e limina t e t r a ns c r ipt io n e r r o r s a nd e ns ur e r e pr o duc ibilit y ( Aus t & B a r t h, 2 0 1 8 ) . T he c o de t o r e pr o duc e t his pa pe r is a v a ila ble in s upple me nt a r y ma t e r ia ls . M o de r a t o r s A r a ng e o f mo de r a t o r s w e r e e x t r a c t e d f r o m s t udie s , inc luding t he a g e a nd g e nde r r a t io a nd e duc a t io n le v e l o f t he s a mple ; t he do ma ins o f t he g r o w t h minds e t ; a nd s e lf - e s t e e m s c a le s ; t he g r o w t h minds e t t y pe ( G M S t y pe ) , t ha t is , inc r e me nt a l, e nt it y , o r c o mbine d it e ms ; w he t he r s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s do ma ins w e r e ide nt ic a l, s imila r o r unr e la t e d; w he t he r t he inc r e me nt a l t he o r y s c a le w a s s e lf - f o c us e d ( e .g . “ I a m ma lle a ble ” ) v s . o t he r f o c us e d ( e .g . “ pe o ple a r e ma lle a ble ” ) . R e s ul t s St udy f e a t ur e s R e c o r ds w e r e publis he d f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 2 0 1 6 . Sa mple s iz e s r a ng e d f r o m 8 0 t o 1 0 ,0 4 0 ; t he t o t a l s a mple s iz e w a s 3 7 ,7 2 8 . Se e Fig ur e 1 f o r a P R I SM A flo w dia g r a m ( M o he r , 2 0 0 9 ) .  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 9 M e t a -a na l y s i s T hir t y - f o ur s t udie s ( 7 9 e ff e c t s ) pr e s e nt e d da t a w hic h c o uld be po o le d. T he po o le d c o r r e la t io n a nd 9 5 % Wa ld C I w a s r = 0 .1 6 ( 0 .1 2 , 0 .2 0 ) ( Fig ur e 2 ) . T his indic a t e s t ha t inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m a r e po s it iv e ly link e d ( a lbe it w e a k ly ; Hy po t he s is 1 ) . I ns pe c t ing t he Q s t a t is t ic r e v e a le d s ig nific a nt he t e r o g e ne it y ( Q ( df = 7 8 ) = 1 6 3 7 .3 4 , p < 0 .0 1 ) . E ff e c t s iz e s w e r e hig hly v a r ia ble w it hin a nd be t w e e n s t udie s . T he he t e r o g e ne it y a t le v e l 2 w a s 5 7 .2 6 %. T he he t e r o g e ne it y a t le v e l 3 w a s 3 4 .0 2 %. M o de r a t io n a na ly s is w a s pe r f o r me d in a t t e mpt t o ide nt if y c o - v a r ia t e s o f t he link be t w e e n s e lf - e s t e e m a nd inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s ( T a ble 1 ) . “ G e nde r ” s ig nific a nt ly mo de r a t e d he t e r o g e ne it y w it hin s t udie s ( R 2 ( 2 ) = 0 .0 6 %; R 2 ( 3 ) = 0 %) , a s did inc r e me nt a l s c a le t y pe ( R 2 ( 2 ) = 5 4 .2 5 %; R 2 ( 3 ) = 5 4 .2 5 %) . St udie s w hic h us e d inc r e me nt a l s c a le s , r a t he r t ha n e nt it y s c a le s , r e po r t e d la r g e r e ff e c t s iz e s . “ I mplic it t he o r y f r a me ” ( Hy po t he s is 3 ) w a s a mo de r a t o r o f be t w e e n- s t udy he t e r o g e ne it y ( R 2 ( 2 ) = 0 %; R 2 ( 3 ) = 7 8 .5 5 %) . St udie s w hic h a s k e d pa r t ic ipa nt s a bo ut s e lf - t he o r ie s r a t he r t ha n o t he r - t he o r ie s r e po r t e d s t r o ng e r link s t o s e lf - e s t e e m. E v ide nc e w a s no t f o und in s uppo r t o f t he do ma in ma t c hing pr inc iple w it h r e g a r ds t o s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s ( Hy po t he s is 2 ) . P ubl i ca t i o n bi a s I n o r de r t o t e s t f o r t he pr e s e nc e o f public a t io n bia s , a f unne l plo t w a s pr o duc e d ( Fig ur e 3 ) . While s ubs t a nt ia l he t e r o g e ne it y is v is ible , t he r e is no o bv io us a s y mme t r y . An e g g e r ’s r e g r e s s io n t e s t did no t s ug g e s t f unne l plo t a s y mme t r y ( p = 0 .2 4 ) .  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 1 0 D i s cus s i o n T he c ur r e nt s t udy e x a mine d t he r e la t io ns hip be t w e e n implic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m us ing a me t a - a na ly t ic a ppr o a c h. T his s t udy de mo ns t r a t e d t ha t s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s a r e w e a k ly link e d po s it iv e ly . Ho w e v e r , t he r e s ubs t a nt ia l he t e r o g e ne it y a mo ng e s t ima t e s . T his s ug g e s t s t ha t t he link be t w e e n s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s v a r ie s a c r o s s s e t t ing s a nd me t ho ds . A f e w mo de r a t o r s w e r e ide nt ifie d a s po t e nt ia lly be ing impo r t a nt . T he mo s t impo r t a nt o f t he s e ma y be implic it - t he o r y f r a me e ff e c t s . I mplic it t he o r y me a s ur e s t ha t f o c us e d o n t he s e lf , ha d muc h s t r o ng e r link s t o s e lf - e s t e e m t ha n implic it t he o r ie s f o c us e d o n o t he r s . G iv e n t ha t r e s e a r c h is g e ne r a lly f o c us e d o n t he ma lle a bilit y o f t he s e lf , r a t he r t ha n o t he r s ( w hic h ma y diff e r ) , it s e e ms lo g ic a l t ha t s c a le it e ms s ho uld a ls o f o c us o n t he ma lle a bilit y o n t he s e lf . Fur t he r r e s e a r c h ma y c la r if y if implic it t he o r y o f s e lf s c a le s ha v e s upe r io r ps y c ho me t r ic q ua lit ie s t o implic it t he o r y o f o t he r s c a le s . Ano t he r mo de r a t o r w a s t ha t inc r e me nt a l it e ms r e la t e d mo r e s t r o ng ly t o s e lf - c o nc e pt t ha n e nt it y it e ms . T he r e ha s be e n s o me de ba t e in t he fie ld r e g a r ding w he t he r inc r e me nt a l it e ms s ho uld be us e d a t a ll. D w e c k e t a l. ( 1 9 9 5 ) s ug g e s t e d t ha t e nt it y a nd inc r e me nt a l it e ms e x is t o n t he s a me bipo la r s pe c t r um a nd s o r e j e c t io n o f inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s e q ua t e s t o e ndo r s e me nt o f e nt it y t he o r ie s a nd v ic e - v e r s a . I n t his s t udy , it a ppe a r s a s t ho ug h t he r e la t io ns hip be t w e e n implic it t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - c o nc e pt s do e s diff e r in s t r e ng t h de pe nding o n w he t he r s c a le s us e d e x c lus iv e ly e nt it y it e ms , inc r e me nt a l it e ms , o r a c o mbina t io n o f bo t h. I f t he s e it e ms w e r e t r uly mir r o r ima g e s o f e a c h o t he r t ha n t he ir r e la t io ns hip t o o t he r v a r ia ble s s ho uld no t g r e a t ly diff e r . So me s a mple f e a t ur e s a ls o pr e dic t e d e ff e c t s iz e . T he link be t w e e n implic it t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m t e nde d t o be mo r e s t r o ng ly r e la t e d f o r ma le s a mple s . While c a us a l o r de r ing s a r e unc le a r , t his finding r a is e s t he q ue s t io n o f w he t he r inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s pr o v ide mo r e be ne fit  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 1 1 t o ma le s t ha n t o f e ma le s . I f t his is t he c a s e , it is lik e ly t ha t t he be ne fit o f inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s is mo de r a t e d by o t he r v a r ia ble s w hic h ma y be mis s ing f r o m c ur r e nt mo de ls . O f no t e , t he link be t w e e n s e lf - e s t e e m a nd implic it t he o r ie s w a s no t s t r o ng e r w he n do ma ins w e r e ma t c he d. P r io r w o r k ha s s ug g e s t e d t ha t implic it t he o r ie s a r e do ma in s pe c ific ( Hug he s , 2 0 1 5 ; Sc hr o de r , D a w o o d, Ya lc h, D o nne lla n, & M o s e r , 2 0 1 6 ) . T he r e ma y be pr o ble ms w it h t he w a y implic it t he o r y s c a le s a r e c o ns t r uc t e d in v a r io us do ma ins . Fut ur e ps y c ho me t r ic w o r k c la r if y ing t he hie r a r c hic a l s t r uc t ur e o f implic it t he o r ie s w o uld be us e f ul. L i m i t a t i o ns T his me t a - a na ly s is is c r o s s - s e c t io na l, a s s uc h c a us a l o r de r ing s c a nno t be e s t a blis he d. Addit io na lly , s o me r e la t e d c o ns t r uc t s s uc h a s g e ne t ic e s s e nt ia lis m, c o mpe t e nc e , a nd s e lf - e ffic a c y w e r e o mit t e d. So me s c a le s a iming t o me a s ur e t he s e c o ns t r uc t s ma y ha v e s imila r f e a t ur e s t o it e ms me a s ur e s e lf - e s t e e m, s e lf - c o nc e pt , o r implic it ma lle a bilit y t he o r ie s . C o ncl us i o n I mplic it t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m a r e w e a k ly r e la t e d. St r o ng e r inc r e me nt a l t he o r ie s t e nd t o be a s s o c ia t e d w it h mo r e po s it iv e s e lf - e s t e e m a nd s e lf - c o nc e pt . T his a s s o c ia t io n w a s mo de r a t e d by v a r io us c o - v a r ia t e s . I mplic it t he o r y s c a le s w hic h r e f e r e nc e d t he s e lf w e r e mo r e s t r o ng ly r e la t e d t o s e lf - e s t e e m a nd s e lf - c o nc e pt . Sa mple s w it h hig he r pr o po r t io ns o f ma le s s ho w e d s t r o ng e r e ff e c t s . Fut ur e r e s e a r c h s ho uld ut ilis e e x pe r ime nt a l a nd lo ng it udina l de s ig ns t o de mo ns t r a t e t he dir e c t io n o f e ff e c t be t w e e n implic it t he o r ie s a nd s e lf - e s t e e m.  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 1 2 R e f e r e nce s R e f e r e nc e s ma r k e d w it h a n a s t e r is k indic a t e s t udie s inc lude d in t he me t a - a na ly s is . * Ac k e r ma n, P . L ., Sha pir o , S., & B e ie r , M . E . ( 2 0 1 1 ) . Subj e c t iv e e s t ima t e s o f j o b pe r f o r ma nc e a f t e r j o b pr e v ie w : D e t e r mina nt s o f a nt ic ipa t e d le a r ning c ur v e s . J our nal of V ocational B ehavior , 78( 1 ) , 3 1 – 4 8 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 1 6 / j .j v b.2 0 1 0 .0 8 .0 0 3 * Ahma v a a r a , A., & Ho us t o n, D . M . ( 2 0 0 7 ) . T he e ff e c t s o f s e le c t iv e s c ho o ling a nd s e lf - c o nc e pt o n a do le s c e nt s ’ a c a de mic a s pir a t io n: An e x a mina t io n o f dw e c k ’s s e lf - t he o r y . B r itish J our nal of E ducational P sychology, 77, 6 1 3 – 6 3 2 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 3 4 8 / 0 0 0 7 0 9 9 0 6 x 1 2 0 1 3 2 Aus t , F., & B a r t h, M . ( 2 0 1 8 ) . papaja: Cr eate A P A manuscr ipts with R M ar kdown. R e t r ie v e d f r o m ht t ps :/ / g it hub.c o m/ c r s h/ pa pa j a * C ha nc e , R . C . ( 2 0 1 4 ) . E xtensions of the tr ipar tite integr ation model of social influence (timsi): U sing explicit and implicit measur es to examine ethnic minor ity and major ity student academic achievement ( T he s is ) . So ut he r n I llino is Univ e r s it y C a r bo nda le . R e t r ie v e d f r o m ht t p:/ / e z pr o x y .a c u.e du.a u/ lo g in? ur l= ht t p:/ / s e a r c h.e bs c o ho s t .c o m/ lo g in.a s px ? dir e c t = t r ue & db= ps y h& AN= 2 0 1 4 - 9 9 1 8 1 - 0 2 8 & s it e = e ho s t - liv e & s c o pe = s it e C he ung , M . W.- L . ( 2 0 1 4 a ) . me t a SE M : An R pa c k a g e f o r me t a - a na ly s is us ing s t r uc t ur a l e q ua t io n mo de ling . F r ontier s in P sychology, 5. C he ung , M . W.- L . ( 2 0 1 4 b) . M o de ling de pe nde nt e ff e c t s iz e s w it h t hr e e - le v e l me t a - a na ly s e s : A s t r uc t ur a l e q ua t io n mo de ling a ppr o a c h. P sychological M ethods. ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 3 7 / a 0 0 3 2 9 6 8  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 1 3 * C ine lli, M . D ., & Ya ng , L . F. ( 2 0 1 6 ) . T he r o le o f implic it t he o r ie s in e v a lua t io ns o f "P lus - s iz e " a dv e r t is ing . J our nal of A dver tising, 45( 4 ) , 4 7 2 – 4 8 1 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 8 0 / 0 0 9 1 3 3 6 7 .2 0 1 6 .1 2 3 0 8 3 8 * C la a s s e n, L ., He nne ma n, L ., D e Ve t , R ., K no l, D ., M a r t e a u, T ., & T imme r ma ns , D . ( 2 0 1 0 ) . Fa t a lis t ic r e s po ns e s t o diff e r e nt t y pe s o f g e ne t ic r is k inf o r ma t io n: E x plo r ing t he r o le o f s e lf - ma lle a bilit y . P sychology & H ealth, 25( 2 ) , 1 8 3 – 1 9 6 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 8 0 / 0 8 8 7 0 4 4 0 8 0 2 4 6 0 4 3 4 C o nig r a v e , J. ( 2 0 1 9 ) . M s e mt o o ls : R o ut ine s , t a ble s , a nd fig ur e s f o r me t a SE M a na ly s e s . D e C a s t e lla , K ., & B y r ne , D . ( 2 0 1 5 ) . M y I nt e llig e nc e M a y B e M o r e M a lle a ble t ha n Yo ur s : T he R e v is e d I mplic it T he o r ie s o f I nt e llig e nc e ( Se lf - T he o r y ) Sc a le I s a B e t t e r P r e dic t o r o f Ac hie v e me nt , M o t iv a t io n, a nd St ude nt D is e ng a g e me nt . E ur opean J our nal of P sychology of E ducation, 30( 3 ) , 2 4 5 – 2 6 7 . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 0 7 / s 1 0 2 1 2 - 0 1 5 - 0 2 4 4 - y D e C a s t e lla , K ., G o ldin, P ., Ja z a ie r i, H., Z iv , M ., D w e c k , C . S., & G r o s s , J. J. ( 2 0 1 3 a ) . B e lie f s a bo ut e mo t io n: L ink s t o e mo t io n r e g ula t io n, w e ll- be ing , a nd ps y c ho lo g ic a l dis t r e s s . B asic and A pplied Social P sychology, 35( 6 ) , 4 9 7 – 5 0 5 . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 8 0 / 0 1 9 7 3 5 3 3 .2 0 1 3 .8 4 0 6 3 2 * D e C a s t e lla , K ., G o ldin, P ., Ja z a ie r i, H., Z iv , M ., D w e c k , C . S., & G r o s s , J. J. ( 2 0 1 3 b) . B e lie f s a bo ut e mo t io n: L ink s t o e mo t io n r e g ula t io n, w e ll- be ing , a nd ps y c ho lo g ic a l dis t r e s s . B asic and A pplied Social P sychology, 35( 6 ) , 4 9 7 – 5 0 5 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 8 0 / 0 1 9 7 3 5 3 3 .2 0 1 3 .8 4 0 6 3 2 * D e C a s t e lla , K ., G o ldin, P ., Ja z a ie r i, H., Z iv , M ., He imbe r g , R . G ., & G r o s s , J. J. ( 2 0 1 4 ) . E mo t io n be lie f s in s o c ia l a nx ie t y dis o r de r : As s o c ia t io ns w it h s t r e s s , a nx ie t y , a nd w e ll- be ing . A ustr alian J our nal of P sychology, 66( 2 ) , 1 3 9 – 1 4 8 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 1 1 1 / a j py .1 2 0 5 3  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 1 4 * D o uble , K . S., & B ir ne y , D . P . ( 2 0 1 6 ) . T he e ff e c t s o f pe r s o na lit y a nd me t a c o g nit iv e be lie f s o n c o g nit iv e t r a ining a dhe r e nc e a nd pe r f o r ma nc e . P er sonality and I ndividual D iffer ences, 102, 7 – 1 2 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 1 6 / j .pa id.2 0 1 6 .0 4 .1 0 1 D w e c k , C . S. ( 2 0 0 0 ) . Self-theor ies: Their r ole in motivation, per sonality, and development. P hila de lphia , P A: P s y c ho lo g y P r e s s . D w e c k , C . S., C hiu, C .- y ., & Ho ng , Y.- y . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . I mplic it t he o r ie s a nd t he ir r o le in j udg me nt s a nd r e a c t io ns : A w o r ld f r o m t w o pe r s pe c t iv e s . P sychological I nquir y, 6( 4 ) , 2 6 7 – 2 8 5 . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 2 0 7 / s 1 5 3 2 7 9 6 5 pli0 6 0 4 _1 D w e c k , C . S., & L e g g e t t , E . L . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . A s o c ia l- c o g nit iv e a ppr o a c h t o mo t iv a t io n a nd pe r s o na lit y . P sychological R eview, 95( 2 ) , 2 5 6 – 2 7 3 . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 3 7 / 0 0 3 3 - 2 9 5 X.9 5 .2 .2 5 6 * E dw a r ds , D . N. ( 2 0 1 3 ) . A r e my gr ades a r eflection of me?: B lack college students’ attr ibutions and inter pr etations of gr ades r eceived in the classr oom ( T he s is ) . Ho w a r d Univ e r s it y . R e t r ie v e d f r o m ht t ps :/ / s e a r c h.pr o q ue s t .c o m/ do c v ie w / 1 7 7 3 2 2 0 2 0 1 ? a c c o unt id= 8 1 9 4 %0 Aht t p: / / a c u- e du- pr imo .ho s t e d.e x libr is g r o up.c o m/ o pe nur l/ 6 1 AC U/ 6 1 AC U_SP ? ? ur l_v e r = Z 3 9 .8 8 - 2 0 0 4 & r f t _v a l_f mt = inf o :o fi/ f mt :k e v :mt x : dis s e r t a t io n& g e nr e = unk no w n& s id= P r o Q :E R I C & a t it le = & t it le = Ar e + M y + G r a de s + a + R e fle c t io n+ o f + M e %3 F%3 A+ B la c k + C o lle g e + St ude nt s %2 7 + At t r ibut io ns + a nd+ I nt e r pr e t a t io ns + o f + G r a de s + R e c e iv e d+ in+ t he + C la s s r o o m& is s n= & da t e = 2 0 1 3 - 0 1 - 0 1 & v o lume = & is s ue = & s pa g e = & a u= E dw a r ds %2 C + D ia na + Nic o le & is bn= 9 7 8 1 3 0 3 3 2 6 9 3 6 & j t it le = & bt it le = & r f t _id= inf o :e r ic / E D 5 5 9 8 1 4 & r f t _id= inf o :do i/ * E mile , M ., C ha la ba e v , A., St e pha n, Y., C o r r io n, K ., & d’Ar r ipe - L o ng ue v ille , F. ( 2 0 1 4 ) . Ag ing s t e r e o t y pe s a nd a c t iv e lif e s t y le : P e r s o na l c o r r e la t e s o f s t e r e o t y pe int e r na liz a t io n a nd r e la t io ns hips w it h le v e l o f phy s ic a l a c t iv it y a mo ng o lde r a dult s . P sychology of  SE L F- E ST E E M AND I M P L I C I T M AL L E AB I L I T Y T HE O R I E S 1 5 Spor t and E xer cise, 15( 2 ) , 1 9 8 – 2 0 4 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 1 6 / j .ps y c hs po r t .2 0 1 3 .1 1 .0 0 2 * G o nida , E ., K io s s e o g lo u, G ., & L e o nda r i, A. ( 2 0 0 6 ) . I mplic it t he o r ie s o f int e llig e nc e , pe r c e iv e d a c a de mic c o mpe t e nc e , a nd s c ho o l a c hie v e me nt : T e s t ing a lt e r na t iv e mo de ls . The A mer ican J our nal of P sychology, 119( 2 ) , 2 2 3 – 2 3 8 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .2 3 0 7 / 2 0 4 4 5 3 3 6 * Ha s s , R . W., K a t z - B uo ninc o nt r o , J., & R e it e r - P a lmo n, R . ( 2 0 1 6 ) . D is e nt a ng ling c r e a t iv e minds e t s f r o m c r e a t iv e s e lf - e ffic a c y a nd c r e a t iv e ide nt it y : D o pe o ple ho ld fix e d a nd g r o w t h t he o r ie s o f c r e a t iv it y ? P sychology of A esthetics, Cr eativity and the A r ts, 10( 4 ) , 4 3 6 – 4 4 6 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / ht t p:/ / dx .do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 3 7 / a c a 0 0 0 0 0 8 1 Hug he s , J. S. ( 2 0 1 5 ) . Suppo r t f o r t he do ma in s pe c ific it y o f implic it be lie f s a bo ut pe r s o ns , int e llig e nc e , a nd mo r a lit y . P er sonality and I ndividual D iffer ences, 86, 1 9 5 – 2 0 3 . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 1 6 / j .pa id.2 0 1 5 .0 5 .0 4 2 * K a r a f a nt is , D . M ., & L e v y , S. R . ( 2 0 0 4 ) . T he r o le o f c hildr e n’s la y t he o r ie s a bo ut t he ma lle a bilit y o f huma n a t t r ibut e s in be lie f s a bo ut a nd v o lunt e e r ing f o r dis a dv a nt a g e d g r o ups . Child D evelopment, 75( 1 ) , 2 3 6 – 2 5 0 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 1 1 1 / j .1 4 6 7 - 8 6 2 4 .2 0 0 4 .0 0 6 6 6 .x * K a r w o w s k i, M . ( 2 0 1 4 ) . C r e a t iv e minds e t s : M e a s ur e me nt , c o r r e la t e s , c o ns e q ue nc e s . P sychology of A esthetics Cr eativity and the A r ts, 8( 1 ) , 6 2 – 7 0 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 3 7 / a 0 0 3 4 8 9 8 * K ing , R . B . ( 2 0 1 2 ) . Ho w y o u t hink a bo ut y o ur int e llig e nc e influe nc e s ho w a dj us t e d y o u a r e : I mplic it t he o r ie s a nd a dj us t me nt o ut c o me s . P er sonality and I ndividual D iffer ences, 53( 5 ) , 7 0 5 – 7 0 9 . Jo ur na l Ar t ic le . ht t ps :/ / do i.o r g / 1 0 .1 0 1 6 / j .pa id.2 0 1 2 .0 5 .0 3 1 L e v y , S. R ., St r o e s s ne r , S. J., & D w e c k , C . S. ( 1 9 9 8 ) . St e r e o t y pe f o r ma t io n a nd e ndo r s e me nt :